Meta tags:
description= Nigel Calder takes the pulse of science, as the author of Magic Universe and Einstein s Universe. He checks predictions of the past half-century, to see how they worked out. And his hand is on the brow of frenzied climatology, as a co-author of The Chilling Stars: A Cosmic View of Climate Change.;
Headings (most frequently used words):
of, the, buy, calder, ve, memorial, meeting, posts, universe, updates, sung, this, song, but, ll, sing, it, again, further, details, advance, notice, obituaries, and, other, notices, newspaper, announcements, nigel, 1931, 2014, gotta, be, driftin, along, stellar, revision, story, life, quantum, computing, forges, ahead, climate, physics, 101, yet, another, trick, cosmic, rays, categories, search, blog, recent, top, currently, rss, links, to, https, calderup, wordpress, com, chilling, stars, magic, einstein, archive, email, subscription, visitors, since, 10, may,
Text of the page (most frequently used words):
the (478), and (172), that (65), for (55), with (51), svensmark (51), #cosmic (39), was (37), life (35), #climate (33), from (32), this (31), rays (30), are (29), years (28), cloud (25), what (24), you (24), 2014 (24), quantum (22), calder (21), new (21), nigel (21), paper (21), not (20), but (20), about (19), sulphuric (19), acid (19), all (19), comments (18), have (18), 2012 (18), million (17), news (17), they (17), would (17), will (17), calderup (16), change (16), supernova (16), time (16), supernovae (16), com (15), may (15), long (15), henrik (15), has (15), there (15), like (14), society (14), when (14), other (13), sun (13), stars (13), space (13), experiment (13), physics (13), universe (13), science (12), how (12), earth (12), computing (12), story (12), meeting (12), aerosols (12), over (12), which (12), sea (12), posted (11), clusters (11), can (11), more (11), too (11), way (11), our (11), wordpress (10), now (10), blog (10), royal (10), permalink (10), very (10), dioxide (10), most (10), one (10), times (10), level (10), many (10), past (10), rate (10), permian (10), comets (9), clouds (9), carbon (9), out (9), memorial (9), nature (9), university (9), theory (9), growth (9), http (9), solar (9), were (9), their (9), its (9), majorana (9), comment (8), ago (8), grow (8), better (8), than (8), some (8), cern (8), hypothesis (8), magic (8), copenhagen (8), enghoff (8), evidence (8), see (8), experimental (8), available (8), end (8), had (8), these (8), into (8), called (8), figure (8), because (8), his (8), galaxy (8), high (8), ibm (8), astronomical (8), event (8), productivity (8), lizzie (8), email (7), since (7), warming (7), stellar (7), results (7), another (7), 1931 (7), uncategorized (7), pedersen (7), condensation (7), nuclei (7), www (7), ion (7), going (7), between (7), number (7), gases (7), before (7), possible (7), here (7), first (7), few (7), during (7), biodiversity (7), take (7), updates (6), why (6), did (6), black (6), molecules (6), who (6), again (6), ray (6), without (6), book (6), chilling (6), https (6), tagged (6), technical (6), pepke (6), institute (6), small (6), much (6), present (6), electrons (6), where (6), water (6), both (6), known (6), shows (6), together (6), year (6), two (6), global (6), world (6), bits (6), atoms (6), far (6), period (6), marine (6), rates (6), june (6), church (6), posts (5), buy (5), matter (5), star (5), still (5), computer (5), big (5), whole (5), 2010 (5), nucleation (5), say (5), action (5), further (5), confirmed (5), trick (5), notices (5), details (5), sulphur (5), physical (5), danish (5), national (5), 2011 (5), 2006 (5), formation (5), experts (5), right (5), experiments (5), additional (5), particles (5), theoretical (5), due (5), made (5), well (5), enough (5), could (5), after (5), then (5), old (5), panel (5), post (5), been (5), work (5), technology (5), press (5), paul (5), same (5), today (5), plate (5), tectonics (5), permo (5), triassic (5), milky (5), late (5), even (5), nearby (5), sketch (5), half (5), family (5), please (5), crawley (5), author (5), view (4), report (4), free (4), history (4), next (4), disappear (4), sky (4), language (4), mars (4), just (4), dying (4), yet (4), 101 (4), revision (4), along (4), obituaries (4), einstein (4), martin (4), jens (4), olaf (4), aarhus (4), observational (4), release (4), role (4), particle (4), atmospheric (4), conditions (4), research (4), arxiv (4), org (4), variation (4), team (4), danes (4), ultraviolet (4), larger (4), also (4), second (4), several (4), down (4), off (4), make (4), blue (4), size (4), should (4), let (4), air (4), last (4), discovery (4), explained (4), ocean (4), intergovernmental (4), delft (4), qubits (4), information (4), coherence (4), practical (4), state (4), london (4), start (4), century (4), january (4), era (4), oxygen (4), extinction (4), bio (4), sometimes (4), left (4), 500 (4), animals (4), short (4), term (4), above (4), leave (4), funeral (4), followed (4), december (4), 2016 (4), get (3), required (3), sign (3), subscribe (3), already (3), address (3), puzzling (3), ice (3), live (3), back (3), image (3), mother (3), human (3), accelerator (3), paradigm (3), shift (3), means (3), personal (3), forges (3), ahead (3), gotta (3), driftin (3), newspaper (3), announcements (3), advance (3), notice (3), sung (3), song (3), sing (3), predictions (3), sky2 (3), letters (3), chemical (3), net (3), 5039 (3), 2007 (3), online (3), ions (3), preprint (3), changes (3), publication (3), until (3), low (3), nearly (3), days (3), isn (3), amazing (3), such (3), activity (3), head (3), cover (3), catalytic (3), trace (3), ozone (3), contradicts (3), models (3), points (3), included (3), promote (3), below (3), comes (3), different (3), mean (3), come (3), extra (3), effect (3), lost (3), large (3), explanation (3), chemistry (3), needed (3), suggestion (3), molecular (3), point (3), theories (3), hand (3), curve (3), through (3), only (3), set (3), primary (3), something (3), need (3), important (3), little (3), brief (3), atmosphere (3), her (3), announced (3), near (3), volcanoes (3), cycle (3), cooling (3), temperatures (3), friis (3), christensen (3), mid (3), match (3), flood (3), pair (3), graphs (3), die (3), want (3), simply (3), qbits (3), steffen (3), fermion (3), forbes (3), ettore (3), decoherence (3), american (3), becomes (3), code (3), within (3), update (3), australia (3), phosphorus (3), energy (3), ambiguities (3), numbers (3), good (3), simple (3), computers (3), therapsid (3), system (3), pleiades (3), photosynthesis (3), mesozoic (3), gorgonopsia (3), fossil (3), evolution (3), pangloss (3), continental (3), drift (3), zone (3), astrobiology (3), include (3), planet (3), least (3), best (3), although (3), rapid (3), place (3), creatures (3), species (3), local (3), photosynthetic (3), affecting (3), dinosaurs (3), ancestors (3), gorgon (3), died (3), ras (3), diversity (3), around (3), changing (3), explain (3), living (3), nothing (3), david (3), writer (3), home (3), july (3), martins (3), bbc (3), started (2), site (2), website (2), write (2), reader (2), content (2), log (2), subscribed (2), account (2), join (2), 150 (2), subscribers (2), create (2), your (2), monsoon (2), sloooow (2), greenland (2), earthquakes (2), wiki (2), seed (2), self (2), population (2), pretty (2), magnetic (2), scale (2), aps (2), missing (2), briefly (2), roll (2), comet (2), confirms (2), falsify (2), pause (2), hoodwinked (2), berkeley (2), editors (2), opinions (2), sausages (2), pig (2), winton (2), prize (2), utopia (2), beats (2), dystopia (2), auroras (2), beginners (2), probe (2), sank (2), titanic (2), rss (2), top (2), currently (2), recent (2), search (2), updating (2), previous (2), tokyo (2), denmark (2), isotopes (2), skyii (2), review (2), dtu (2), seeding (2), aerosol (2), atmos (2), chem (2), phys (2), discuss (2), source (2), basement (2), bondo (2), decreases (2), 2009 (2), abs (2), 1202 (2), 5156v1 (2), response (2), submitted (2), references (2), man (2), continual (2), variations (2), production (2), modulation (2), remnants (2), chain (2), ever (2), political (2), scientific (2), passed (2), 1996 (2), link (2), light (2), vapour (2), gamma (2), result (2), control (2), predict (2), condensable (2), leads (2), finding (2), current (2), induced (2), latest (2), reads (2), liberated (2), pathway (2), reference (2), depending (2), whether (2), relative (2), route (2), night (2), day (2), help (2), form (2), negative (2), keep (2), being (2), used (2), nanometres (2), millionths (2), millimetre (2), anything (2), contrast (2), red (2), illustrate (2), prediction (2), passes (2), expected (2), supply (2), persistent (2), presence (2), influence (2), per (2), maximum (2), continuously (2), reaction (2), doesn (2), rises (2), concentration (2), peak (2), attempts (2), dismiss (2), didn (2), knew (2), understanding (2), order (2), chamber (2), forms (2), colleagues (2), opponents (2), said (2), exploding (2), ends (2), gathering (2), reported (2), indeed (2), really (2), mass (2), become (2), climax (2), met (2), office (2), troposphere (2), north (2), atlantic (2), oscillation (2), isac (2), hadat2 (2), greenhouse (2), european (2), agency (2), niño (2), eigil (2), 2000 (2), those (2), meanwhile (2), decade (2), trend (2), follow (2), effects (2), natural (2), temperature (2), written (2), books (2), subject (2), engaged (2), longer (2), myself (2), based (2), project (2), cause (2), thank (2), people (2), saying (2), others (2), charge (2), army (2), matthias (2), lutchyn (2), leo (2), kouwenhoven (2), eugenie (2), samuel (2), reich (2), alex (2), knapp (2), quest (2), march (2), fermions (2), february (2), towards (2), places (2), particularly (2), techniques (2), led (2), extremely (2), wire (2), own (2), item (2), behaviour (2), devices (2), 250 (2), simultaneously (2), probably (2), told (2), achieved (2), microseconds (2), 100 (2), factor (2), ten (2), increased (2), 000 (2), later (2), errors (2), qubit (2), switches (2), particular (2), soufflé (2), clark (2), south (2), wales (2), striking (2), held (2), beyond (2), seen (2), operation (2), machine (2), centre (2), spooks (2), secret (2), centuries (2), suspect (2), behind (2), digital (2), park (2), sure (2), states (2), give (2), binary (2), billion (2), relays (2), true (2), looked (2), earlier (2), might (2), sum (2), superanoxic (2), soviet (2), academy (2), sciences (2), palaeozoic (2), nutrient (2), exhaustion (2), monthly (2), invertebrates (2), guadalupian (2), record (2), basalt (2), don (2), fret (2), diehards (2), decades (2), never (2), diehard (2), went (2), minor (2), job (2), geology (2), happen (2), previously (2), gives (2), shape (2), speak (2), goldilocks (2), planetary (2), fit (2), nor (2), similar (2), add (2), everything (2), lucky (2), commented (2), 251 (2), consequences (2), green (2), context (2), nutrients (2), read (2), gasping (2), breathe (2), lack (2), microbes (2), recently (2), blame (2), tells (2), animal (2), put (2), cousins (2), findings (2), words (2), normalized (2), invertebrate (2), genera (2), count (2), shown (2), freehand (2), liz (2), part (2), spike (2), 270 (2), 440 (2), published (2), explosions (2), close (2), largely (2), main (2), band (2), things (2), galactic (2), amount (2), icy (2), pooh (2), offer (2), geophysicists (2), depends (2), virtually (2), else (2), exploded (2), directions (2), know (2), esa (2), chapter (2), love (2), added (2), given (2), wife (2), wonderful (2), memory (2), share (2), peacefully (2), beloved (2), friday (2), methodist (2), welcome (2), wearing (2), necessary (2), flowers (2), donations (2), dystonia (2), rh11 (2), 9ba (2), 01293 (2), 552345 (2), enquiries (2), friend (2), independent (2), guardian (2), obituary (2), journalist (2), speakers (2), professor (2), request (2), seat (2), informal (2), reception (2), 6pm (2), tuesday (2), 4pm (2), w1j (2), obq (2), piccadilly (2), burlington (2), house (2), editor (2), 2001 (2), service (2), direction (2), woodfield (2), road (2), parade (2), takes (2), pulse (2), checks (2), worked (2), brow (2), frenzied (2), climatology (2), design, name, loading, collapse, bar, manage, subscriptions, privacy, visitors, enter, receive, notifications, subscription, maps, register, approves, age, origin, artificial, identified, flying, objects, rebels, abdus, salam, devout, ahmadi, rush, hawking, discover, pacific, islands, soil, h2o, tradecraft, propaganda, predictable, co2, thermometer, sprites, fight, witch, west, conundrum, neutrinos, aircraft, organizing, colours, butterflies, positions, sulks, malthus, wisdom, kilgore, trout, remedy, jet, lag, ceramic, superconductors, disappoint, cheer, cryosat, freeze, evolve, planck, fierce, hole, sister, milankovitch, 1974, bomb, amazon, rainforest, tarantula, superstar, silly, season, melting, wishful, thinking, czech, style, mirror, orion, bedrock, monopoles, tongue, misleading, meteor, photo, guided, hurricanes, superatomic, circus, dark, lens, blew, jerusalem, wheat, genome, worse, ivan, terrible, kennelful, pluto, puppies, relativity, graphene, scores, cools, daft, hal, lewis, quits, whoosh, busy, sorting, svensmarks, junior, target, spotted, mustn, attempt, archive, links, pick, pics, falsification, tests, mystery, revisited, categories, entries, making, catalysis, nutshell, summary, relevant, items, acpd, html, 5064, bork, hattori, meusinger, nakagawa, danielache, ueno, johnson, yoshida, isotope, ionising, radiation, vol, 463, 385, original, proceedings, marsh, ulrik, uggerhøj, under, affect, l15101, geophysical, won, publicly, accepted, conversation, sounds, reached, trek, defiance, opposition, mockery, cluster, breakthroughs, themselves, secure, perhaps, confused, dislike, scandals, character, engulf, future, historians, shake, heads, sadly, negligence, fundamental, unnoticed, 1875, discovered, found, suggested, produces, amounts, produced, ionization, sources, diameters, appropriate, decline, insufficiency, slower, losses, coagulation, unpredicted, process, possibly, summarize, abstract, forming, performed, collaboration, signatures, abundances, greatly, surpassed, implying, reuse, fashion, concentrations, dozens, raining, ideas, pay, allows, slowly, becoming, charged, producing, reactions, involving, reused, supplies, recall, act, catalysts, horizontal, axis, scaled, each, runs, continued, pessimistic, cease, running, occurs, simulate, show, find, flatly, infant, couldn, clue, persistence, cent, daytime, must, replenished, limelight, drama, commonest, morning, convert, club, ammonia, nevertheless, diminishes, goes, evening, inconsequential, dismay, wrong, support, real, dig, decided, rebuild, cubic, metre, six, prototype, unexpected, sleeve, revealed, elegantly, pointed, blocked, resulting, shortage, starts, paragraph, till, reconfirmed, geneva, coming, supernovas, wide, floating, droplets, seeds, flout, forcing, center, port, reply, lockwood, fröhlich, tropospheric, remained, surface, despite, continuing, increase, flat, contradiction, predicted, lazy, counts, oceans, deg, partly, magnitude, contribution, debatable, upper, roughly, disturbances, removed, upward, measured, balloons, collated, upside, 1991, minimum, fewer, warmer, vary, intensity, having, rebuttal, kinds, scales, millennia, spanning, director, boys, girls, quality, ous, friendly, meticulous, previ, sorry, folks, magazine, prl, 1002, 4033v2, feb, quirky, struck, gold, 10124, solid, case, 10174, pressrelease, 36901, wss, quoted, sites, alexknapp, paves, scalable, opened, special, ability, remember, swaps, sibling, resistant, plagued, promised, industry, netherland, tested, experimentally, field, touch, superconductor, fine, semiconducting, signature, resistance, zero, voltage, product, cosmos, 1937, italian, physicist, adapted, british, dirac, antiparticle, strange, electrically, neutral, exhibit, peculiar, scaling, handling, array, contain, ordinary, entire, capable, performing, millions, computations, existing, withstand, probing, explains, funded, reporter, 1999, nanosecond, improve, threshold, considering, scared, joined, prolonged, researchers, yorktown, height, claimed, sight, device, dogging, experimenters, problem, survive, checked, confirmation, developed, consist, implanted, silicon, using, beam, aimed, precision, sustain, thereby, reducing, risk, transistor, reading, constitutes, unveiling, example, robert, thought, impossible, thing, confidence, members, attempting, widespread, opinion, 20th, reach, requiring, exquisite, delicacy, construction, danger, slightest, external, interference, mismanagement, multiply, parallel, computation, cave, mistimed, australians, front, intentions, wanted, beat, rest, developing, sake, commercial, payoff, bring, founded, federal, funding, participating, teams, universities, queensland, melbourne, spookiness, services, contest, makers, breakers, concepts, pads, supposedly, unbreakable, cipher, powerful, crack, knows, developments, scenes, alan, turing, bletchley, england, war, electron, atom, higher, permitted, laws, considered, once, terms, represents, four, equivalents, three, eight, fifty, represented, compute, them, whereas, electric, electronic, successors, microchips, provide, false, options, expressed, corresponding, fast, exploiting, revolution, spooky, 2002, physicists, equivalent, shannon, offered, pronounced, cue, raised, hopes, operating, section, shadow, looming, reminds, week, happening, breakthrough, predicting, unimaginable, power, discusses, seems, importance, strands, progress, palaeoclimatology, palaeobiology, open, npp, mnras, ipcc, downlaps, cinderella, glory, empirical, issue, except, communist, bloc, immobility, continents, doctrinally, imposed, analagous, doctrine, conceived, insist, causes, compared, impacts, mark, looks, triumph, redfaced, blustering, 1960, department, believed, 1970, practice, sometime, soon, additions, microphysics, unknown, vastly, knowledge, seemed, cocky, pipeline, observations, brought, successes, resisted, umpteen, astronomers, searching, elsewhere, systems, neither, parent, galaxies, unfit, huge, collision, created, disproportionately, moon, provided, orbital, stability, active, relies, astronomically, worlds, threaten, came, range, severe, episodes, snowball, blamed, bursts, location, regions, inhospitable, advanced, itself, closely, related, question, wonder, enhancing, wanting, sound, voltaire, average, hundred, generous, interrupted, chief, victims, warm, including, gigantic, bivalves, rugose, corals, fuller, subtler, persuasive, culminating, lesser, occurred, stage, linked, resurgence, adapt, hyperactive, norma, arm, entered, quiet, fatal, ensue, writes, occurring, quickly, fall, indicator, plumb, middle, downward, pointing, dagger, marks, notes, saw, largest, does, improving, circulation, organisms, simplified, easier, heavy, doomed, symptom, shortfall, weather, circulate, badly, turn, shares, plant, breeders, credit, feeding, growing, plants, covet, bad, course, overlooks, fact, notorious, gas, keeps, alive, geologists, coup, grâce, forget, suggestions, impact, asteroid, greatest, less, sudden, similarly, impressive, eruption, smothered, siberia, noxious, volcanic, rocks, covering, area, belated, regional, scraped, worst, catastrophe, extinct, land, ended, ushered, mammals, trying, clear, death, flourishing, faced, according, reptiles, luckiest, among, mammal, reptile, breath, poor, named, scary, greek, myth, sauroctonus, progressus, metres, relatives, wikipedia, great, fascinating, particulars, use, significance, choose, follows, entirely, arbitrary, brings, axes, labelled, simpler, vertical, bars, indicating, groups, telling, changed, broad, correspondence, surprising, floods, margins, extensive, varied, habitats, obviously, conspicuous, declining, strong, wiggles, remove, broader, taller, reckoning, stress, sketches, operations, convey, data, drawn, precisely, superimposed, comparison, highly, befits, professional, journal, non, expert, eyes, illustrations, enlisted, aid, graph, relatively, strongly, influenced, trilobites, ancient, lobsters, caption, evidently, combination, astrophysical, argument, draws, total, fluctuating, recession, ftp, ftp2, pub, mnras_svensmark2012, pdf, text, via, concern, uppermost, timescales, smaller, briefer, major, controlled, vicinity, destruction, copyrighted, reproduced, acknowledgement, implication, determine, inherently, reaching, tried, diagram, amusing, stands, popular, geoscientists, drastic, alternations, hot, increases, intricate, ways, driven, govern, presented, caution, consideration, feelings, fields, unfolds, meshes, clockwork, anyone, wishes, any, piece, correlation, necessarily, causality, mega, says, mutually, supportive, coincidences, arise, events, neighbourhood, geological, records, converge, gets, bringing, exceptionally, lived, falls, convincingly, astrophysics, equally, concise, cool, increasing, explanations, rampant, faltered, senses, word, taking, victory, pioneers, battle, against, eminent, makes, feel, younger, shredding, textbooks, tuzo, wilson, dan, mckenzie, jason, morgan, merrily, mountain, building, varying, depth, fragments, lithosphere, various, globe, 219, 2117, thrive, giant, figures, equations, effort, variable, frequency, ruled, fortunes, throughout, appearing, publishes, entitled, visible, naked, eye, seven, sisters, famous, surviving, formed, born, massive, siblings, generated, catalogue, calculated, needing, precise, armed, digs, deep, histories, nasa, hubble, jackpot, webmasters, deal, incoming, etc, visit, daily, containing, parts, plural, finished, meant, hope, outline, anyway, watch, writing, prevented, finishing, though, idle, stroke, became, full, carer, apart, dealing, warding, spam, april, explanatory, diagrams, pete, seeger, sang, cancer, exciting, worried, celebrated, diamond, wedding, pictured, received, message, queen, elizabeth, texts, mentioned, check, gentle, telegraph, monday, announcement, appear, ritchie, aged, devoted, husband, adored, brilliant, dad, sarah, penny, simon, jonathan, kate, steadfast, loving, father, law
Text of the page (random words):
old contest between code makers and code breakers there are new concepts called quantum one time pads for a supposedly unbreakable cipher but some experts suspect that a powerful enough quantum computer could crack anything who knows what developments may be going on behind the scenes like the secret work on digital computing by alan turing at bletchley park in england during the second world war the australians were up front about their intentions they simply wanted to beat the rest of the world in developing a practical machine for the sake of the commercial payoff it would bring the centre for quantum computer technology was founded in january 2000 with federal funding and with participating teams in the universities of new south wales queensland and melbourne the striking thing was the confidence of project members about what they were attempting a widespread opinion at the start of the 20th century held that quantum computing was beyond practical reach for the time being it was seen as requiring exquisite delicacy in construction and operation with the ever present danger that the slightest external interference or mismanagement could cause the whole multiply parallel computation to cave in like a mistimed soufflé the qubit switches developed in australia consist of phosphorus atoms implanted in silicon using a high energy beam aimed with high precision phosphorus atoms can sustain a particular state of charge for longer than most atoms thereby reducing the risk of the soufflé effect a pair of phosphorus atoms together with a transistor for reading out their state constitutes one qubit unveiling the first example at a meeting in london robert clark of new south wales said this was thought to be impossible just a few years ago update march 2012 subject to confirmation of the majorana fermion ten years later when many others had joined in a prolonged experimental quest for quantum computing ibm researchers at yorktown height s claimed to be within sight of a practical device within 10 or 15 years dogging all the experimenters was a problem called decoherence would the qbits survive long enough to be checked for possible errors in 2012 matthias steffen of ibm told a reporter in 1999 coherence times were about 1 nanosecond last year coherence times were achieved for as long as 1 to 4 microseconds with our new techniques we ve achieved coherence times of 10 to 100 microseconds we need to improve that by a factor of 10 to 100 before we re at the threshold where we want to be but considering that in the past ten years we ve increased coherence times by a factor of 10 000 i m not scared then it would be a matter of scaling up from devices handling one or two qbits to an array with say 250 qubits that would contain more ordinary bits of information than there are atoms in the entire universe and it would be capable of performing millions of computations simultaneously no existing code could withstand its probing which probably explains why the us army funded ibm s work ettore majorana cern image a by product of quantum computing research was the discovery of a new particle in the cosmos in 1937 the italian physicist ettore majorana adapted a theory by the british paul dirac to predict a particle that is its own antiparticle a very strange item indeed it would be electrically neutral and exhibit peculiar behaviour a team led by leo kouwenhoven at delft university of technology in the netherland tested experimentally a suggestion from 2010 about how to create a pair of these particles at a very low temperature and in a magnetic field you touch a superconductor with an extremely fine semiconducting wire as the signature of the presence of majorana fermions confirmed by the experimental team the resistance in the wire becomes very low at zero voltage the majorana particle opened a new route to quantum computing because of its special ability to remember if it swaps places with a sibling it was expected to be particularly resistant to the decoherence that plagued other techniques so the delft discovery promised a new research industry references steffen quoted by alex knapp in forbes 28 february 2012 http www forbes com sites alexknapp 2012 02 28 ibm paves the way towards scalable quantum computing ibm press release 28 february 2012 http www 03 ibm com press us en pressrelease 36901 wss nature news 8 march 2012 http www nature com news a solid case for majorana fermions 1 10174 nature news 28 feb 2012 http www nature com news quest for quirky quantum particles may have struck gold 1 10124 a suggestion from 2010 paper by lutchyn et al in prl available at arxiv 1002 4033v2 3 comments 1a magic universe tagged alex knapp american physical society bits decoherence delft university of technology ettore majorana eugenie samuel reich forbes ibm leo kouwenhoven lutchyn et al magic universe majorana fermion matthias steffen nature magazine qbits quantum computing us army permalink posted by calderup climate physics 101 03 03 2012 climate change news and comments sorry folks cosmic rays really are in charge on this blog and others most comments about my previ ous post yet another trick of cosmic rays have been friendly thank you but some people still want to dismiss all the meticulous experimental observational and theoretical work of henrik svensmark and his colleagues in the danish national space institute by saying there is simply no link between cosmic rays and the climate having written two books on the subject and still engaged with it i could in rebuttal flood this post with evidence of many kinds on time scales from days to millennia or longer i ll content myself with just one pair of graphs spanning 50 years they re from a 2007 report by svensmark and the institute s director eigil friis christensen and they re based on a european space agency project called isac the carbon dioxide boys and girls would die for a match of cause and effect of this quality cosmic ray intensity is in red and upside down so that 1991 was a minimum not a maximum fewer cosmic rays mean a warmer world and the cosmic rays vary with the solar cycle the blue curve shows the global mean temperature of the mid troposphere as measured with balloons and collated by the uk met office hadat2 in the upper panel the temperatures roughly follow the solar cycle the match is much better when well known effects of other natural disturbances el niño north atlantic oscillation big volcanoes are removed together with an upward trend of 0 14 deg c per decade the trend may be partly due to man made greenhouse gases but the magnitude of their contribution is debatable from 2000 to 2011 mid tropospheric temperatures have remained pretty level like those of the surface despite the continuing increase in the gases in flat contradiction to the warming predicted by the intergovernmental panel on climate change meanwhile the sun is lazy cosmic ray counts are high and the oceans are cooling reference svensmark h and friis christensen e reply to lockwood and fröhlich the persistent role of the sun in climate forcing danish national space center scientific re port 3 2007 48 comments 3a news and comments tagged carbon dioxide climate change climate physics cosmic rays cosmic rays and climate danish national space institute eigil friis christensen el niño european space agency global temperatures greenhouse gases hadat2 henrik svensmark intergovernmental panel on climate change isac north atlantic oscillation ocean cooling solar cycle troposphere uk met office volcanoes permalink posted by calderup yet another trick of cosmic rays 01 03 2012 climate change news and comments in the climax to the danes experiments cloud seeds flout the theories near to the end of the story that starts with stars exploding in the galaxy and ends with extra clouds gathering a small but important paragraph was missing till now from experiments in copenhagen reported in 2006 and reconfirmed in 2011 in aarhus and geneva cern cloud cosmic rays coming from old supernovas can indeed make molecular clusters a few millionths of a millimetre wide floating in the air but can these aerosols really grow nearly a million times in mass to be large enough to become cloud condensation nuclei on which water droplets can form as required by henrik svensmark s cosmic theory of climate change opponents pointed out that theoretical models said no the growth of additional aerosols would be blocked by a resulting shortage of condensable gases like sulphuric acid in the atmosphere not for the first time an unexpected trick that mother nature had up her sleeve is revealed by experiment the discovery is elegantly explained by a new way in which sulphuric acid forms in the atmosphere as announced in a paper by svensmark and two of his colleagues in denmark s national space institute in copenhagen martin enghoff and jens olaf pepke pedersen they have submitted it to physical review letters a preprint is available on arxiv here http arxiv org abs 1202 5156v1 svensmark enghoff and pepke pedersen a brief history last year s attempts to dismiss the aarhus and cern results as inconsequential for climate change didn t dismay the danes they knew there was something wrong with the current understanding because they had observational support for the whole chain from solar activity to cosmic rays to aerosols to clouds in the real atmosphere svensmark bondo and svensmark 2009 in order to dig into the physics they decided to rebuild in the basement of the space institute the 8 cubic metre experimental chamber skyii which six years ago was used as the cloud prototype chamber at cern in the limelight of the atmospheric drama sulphuric acid is one of the commonest of trace gases and very important for both the formation and the growth of aerosols when the sun rises in the morning its ultraviolet rays convert sulphur dioxide ozone and water vapour in the air into sulphuric acid molecules these are continuously lost as they club together with further water and a little ammonia into very small molecular clusters nevertheless the concentration of sulphuric acid rises to a peak and then diminishes as the sun goes down in the evening a clue that something more is going on comes from the persistence all through the night of sulphuric acid at about 10 per cent of the daytime maximum if these molecules too are continuously lost they must be replenished by a chemical reaction that doesn t need ultraviolet light what did the new experiment called sky2 show without going into technical details that you ll find in the paper let s just say that the primary result flatly contradicts the theoretical prediction that the infant aerosols couldn t grow up into cloud condensation nuclei here s a figure from the paper molecular clusters grow over time in the sky2 experiment in copenhagen the horizontal axis is scaled in nanometres millionths of a millimetre and each blue point shows the relative number of clusters of that size before and after the experimental runs anything over 1 0 means that growth has continued in contrast the red points illustrate a pessimistic prediction of previous theories that growth should cease when the size passes 50 nanometres on the other hand the black curve running through the blue points shows what is to be expected if there is a continual supply of sulphuric acid the persistent growth of clusters occurs only in the presence of gamma rays that simulate cosmic rays and set electrons free to influence the chemistry so what s the explanation what new pathway supplies the sulphuric acid needed to keep the growth going the danes recall a suggestion in their 2006 sky report that electrons can act like catalysts being used over and over again to promote chemical action in the new paper they say a possible explanation could be that the charged clusters are producing additional sulphuric acid molecules from reactions involving negative ion chemistry of ozone sulphur dioxide and water where a negative ion can be reused in a catalytic production of several sulphuric acid molecules depending on the concentrations of trace gases several may mean dozens and where do the electrons come from they are liberated by cosmic rays raining down by night as well as by day if the results of the experiment and these ideas are confirmed there s an amazing pay off the cosmic rays help to make the extra sulphuric acid that allows 1 a number of additional aerosols to form and 2 a larger number of aerosols to grow into cloud condensation nuclei without this second effect the aerosols would grow slowly and most of the extra aerosols would be lost before becoming large enough to seed clouds that ions liberated by cosmic rays promote a second pathway for forming sulphuric acid was already known from an experiment performed in copenhagen in a collaboration with the university of copenhagen and the technical university of tokyo see the enghoff et al reference below depending on whether the sulphuric acid comes from ultraviolet action or is ion induced it has different signatures in the relative abundances of isotopes of sulphur what s more the number of molecules made by the ion route greatly surpassed the number of ions available again implying reuse of the electrons in a catalytic fashion to summarize the latest paper the svensmark enghoff and pepke pedersen abstract reads in experiments where ultraviolet light produces aerosols from trace amounts of ozone sulphur dioxide and water vapour the number of additional small particles produced by ionization by gamma sources all grow up to diameters larger than 50 nm appropriate for cloud condensation nuclei this result contradicts both ion free control experiments and also theoretical models that predict a decline in the response of larger particles due to an insufficiency of condensable gases which leads to slower growth and to larger losses by coagulation between the particles this unpredicted experimental finding points to a process not included in current theoretical models possibly an ion induced formation of sulphuric acid in small clusters scandals of a political character engulf climate physics these days but future historians may shake their heads more sadly over scientific negligence isn t it amazing that such a fundamental activity of sulphuric acid going on over your head right now has passed unnoticed since 1875 when cloud seeding was discovered since 1996 when svensmark found the link between cosmic rays and cloud cover and since 2006 when the danes suggested the catalytic role of electrons perhaps the experts were confused by the ever present dislike of the role of the sun in climate change so svensmark and the small team in copenhagen have had nearly all of the breakthroughs to themselves and the chain of experimental and observational evidence is now much more secure supernova remnants cosmic rays solar modulation of cosmic rays variations in cluster and sulphuric acid production variation in cloud con...
|
