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de and software design choices the second most layer are contributors who respond to pull requests and bug reports the third most layer out are contributors who mainly submit bug reports the farthest out layer are those who watch the repository and users of the software that s generated this model has been used in research to understand the lifecycle of open source software understand contributors to open source software projects how tools such as can help contributors at the various levels of involvement in the project and further understand how the distributed nature of open source software may affect the productivity of developers 18 19 20 some researchers have disagreed with this model crowston et al s work has found that some teams are much less centralized and follow a more distributed workflow pattern 18 the authors report that there s a weak correlation between project size and centralization with smaller projects being more centralized and larger projects showing less centralization however the authors only looked at bug reporting and fixing so it remains unclear whether this pattern is only associated with bug finding and fixing or if centralization does become more distributed with size for every aspect of the open source paradigm an understanding of a team s centralization versus distributed nature is important as it may inform tool design and aid new developers in understanding a team s dynamic one concern with open source development is the high turnover rate of developers even among core contributors those at the center of the onion 21 in order to continue an open source project new developers must continually join but must also have the necessary skill set to contribute quality code to the project through a study of github contribution on open source projects middleton et al found that the largest predictor of contributors becoming full fledged members of an open source team moving to the core of the onion was whether they submitted and commented on pull requests the authors then suggest that github as a tool can aid in this process by supporting checkbox features on a team s open source project that urge contributors to take part in these activities 20 youth engagement edit the open source community has long recognized the importance of engaging younger generations to ensure the sustainability and innovation of open source projects however concerns have been raised about the aging demographic of open source contributors and the challenges of attracting younger developers in 2010 james bottomley a prominent linux kernel maintainer observed the graying of the linux kernel community a trend that continues today who can figure out and code in future generations with no dox david nalley president of the apache software foundation asf emphasized that maintaining legacy code is often unappealing to younger developers who prefer to work on new and innovative projects 22 while contributing to open source projects can provide valuable experience in development documentation internationalization and other areas barriers to entry often make it difficult for newcomers particularly younger individuals to get involved these challenges include technical psychological and motivational factors 23 to address these challenges initiatives like the linux kernel mentorship program aim to recruit and train new developers the lfx mentorship program also seeks to sponsor and mentor the next generation of open source developers and leaders across various projects 24 motivations of programmers edit see also motivations for online participation research has examined the motivations for programmers participation in open source development a study presented at the 15th annual congress of the european economic association analyzed individual and organizational incentives for contributing unpaid programming work noting that this form of intellectual gift giving challenges traditional economic models 25 several factors have been identified as potential motivations altruism while altruistic motivations exist among some contributors research suggests this factor has limitations as a primary explanation for the widespread participation in open source projects citation needed some researchers question why similar voluntary contributions are not observed in other fields that might have greater public benefit such as biotechnology 25 community collaboration and code improvement the collaborative online environment facilitates continuous software improvement through peer review and modification contributors benefit from others testing debugging and code enhancement creating a mutual benefit system that can result in higher quality software 25 professional recognition while projects may not always highlight individual contributors many platforms track and display contributor information this visibility can provide professional recognition career opportunities and industry exposure notable technology companies including sun microsystems and netscape were founded by individuals who began as open source contributors 25 technical challenge and skill demonstration some researchers have noted that programmers may approach complex problems as opportunities to demonstrate technical abilities to peers 26 the competitive nature of open source communities where users can also be developers may motivate participants to produce high quality work to gain peer recognition 27 creative expression research suggests that software development can provide personal satisfaction similar to artistic creation the collaborative nature of open source development may offer creative opportunities that differ from commercial software production environments 28 gender diversity of programmers edit see also diversity in open source software the vast majority of programmers in open source communities are male in a 2006 study for the european union on free and open source software communities researchers found that only 1 5 of all contributors are female 29 although women are generally underrepresented in computing the percentage of women in tech professions is actually much higher close to 25 30 this discrepancy suggests that female programmers are overall less likely than male programmers to participate in open source projects some research and interviews with members of open source projects have described a male dominated culture within open source communities that can be unwelcoming or hostile towards females 31 there are initiatives such as outreachy that aim to support more women and other underrepresented gender identities to participate in open source software however within the discussion forums of open source projects the topic of gender diversity can be highly controversial and even inflammatory 31 a central vision in open source software is that because the software is built and maintained on the merit of individual code contributions open source communities should act as a meritocracy 32 in a meritocracy the importance of an individual in the community depends on the quality of their individual contributions and not demographic factors such as age race religion or gender thus proposing changes to the community based on gender for example to make the community more inviting towards females go against the ideal of a meritocracy by targeting certain programmers by gender and not based on their skill alone 31 there is evidence that gender does impact a programmer s perceived merit in the community a 2016 study identified the gender of over one million programmers on github by linking the programmer s github account to their other social media accounts 33 between male and female programmers the researchers found that female programmers were actually more likely to have their pull requests accepted into the project than male programmers however only when the female had a gender neutral profile when females had profiles with a name or image that identified them as female they were less likely than male programmers to have their pull requests accepted another study in 2015 found that of open source projects on github gender diversity was a significant positive predictor of a team s productivity meaning that open source teams with a more even mix of different genders tended to be more highly productive 32 many projects have adopted the contributor covenant code of conduct in an attempt to address concerns of harassment of minority developers anyone found breaking the code of conduct can be disciplined and ultimately removed from the project in order to avoid offense to minorities many software projects have started to mandate the use of inclusive language and terminology 34 evidence of open source adoption edit main article free and open source software adoption libraries are using open source software to develop information as well as library services the purpose of open source is to provide a software that is cheaper reliable and has better quality the one feature that makes this software so sought after is that it is free libraries in particular benefit from this movement because of the resources it provides they also promote the same ideas of learning and understanding new information through the resources of other people open source allows a sense of community it is an invitation for anyone to provide information about various topics the open source tools even allow libraries to create web based catalogs according to the it source there are various library programs that benefit from this 35 government agencies and infrastructure software government agencies are utilizing open source infrastructure software like the linux operating system and the apache web server into software to manage information 36 in 2005 a new government lobby was launched under the name national center for open source policy and research ncospr a non profit organization promoting the use of open source software solutions within government it enterprises 37 open source movement in the military the military has explored open source software for potential operational benefits open source software allows modification by multiple contributors potentially offering cost effective development and rapid customization capabilities military interest stems from the possibility of increased development speed and operational flexibility however security considerations arise due to the open nature of code modification and access the military open source software working group established in 2009 with over 120 military members was organized to facilitate collaboration between software developers and contractors from military organizations the group aimed to explore opportunities for code reuse and collaborative development in military applications 38 open source in education colleges and organizations use software predominantly online to educate their students open source technology is being adopted by many institutions because it can save these institutions from paying companies to provide them with these administrative software systems one of the first major colleges to adopt an open source system was colorado state university in 2009 with many others following after that colorado state universities system was produced by the kuali foundation who has become a major player in open source administrative systems the kuali foundation defines itself as a group of organizations that aims to build and sustain open source software for higher education by higher education 39 there are many other examples of open source instruments being used in education other than the kuali foundation as well citation needed for educators the open source movement allowed access to software that could be used in teaching students how to apply the theories they were learning 40 with open networks and software teachers are able to share lessons lectures and other course materials within a community opentechcomm is a program that is dedicated to open to access open to use and open to edit textbook or pedagogical resource that teachers of technical and professional communication courses at every level can rely on to craft free offerings to their students 41 as stated earlier access to programs like this would be much more cost efficient for educational departments open source in healthcare created in june 2009 by the nonprofit ehealthnigeria the open source software openmrs is used to document health care in nigeria the use of this software began in kaduna nigeria to serve the purpose of public health openmrs manages features such as alerting health care workers when patients show warning signs for conditions and records births and deaths daily among other features the success of this software is caused by its ease of use for those first being introduced to the technology compared to more complex proprietary healthcare software available in first world countries this software is community developed and can be used freely by anyone characteristic of open source applications so far openmrs is being used in rwanda mozambique haiti india china and the philippines 42 the impact of open source in healthcare is also observed by apelon inc the leading provider of terminology and data interoperability solutions recently its distributed terminology system open dts began supporting the open source mysql database system this essentially allows for open source software to be used in healthcare lessening the dependence on expensive proprietary healthcare software due to open source software the healthcare industry has available a free open source solution to implement healthcare standards not only does open source benefit healthcare economically but the lesser dependence on proprietary software allows for easier integration of various systems regardless of the developer 43 companies edit see also business models for open source software ibm edit this section needs expansion you can help by adding missing information august 2020 originally ibm was not the company that branched out to any means of open source software they upheld into believing that intellectual property along with other privatized means of software around the 1990s 44 from a citation it wasn t until ibm was challenged by the evolving competitive market specifically from microsoft that they decided to invest their resources more into open source software since then their focus shifted more on customer service and a more robust software support 44 ibm has been a leading proponent of the open source initiative and began supporting linux in 1998 where they invested 1 billion worth of technical and corporate resources 45 46 the eclipse ide that ibm released as open source as another example ibm had decided to make the eclipse ide integrated development environment open source causing other companies to release their other ides due to eclipse s popularity and outreach to the market 47 microsoft edit main article microsoft and open source prior to 2008 microsoft maintained an adversari...
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