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e called in question much less condemned upon the testimony of biblical passages which may have some different meaning beneath their words for the bible is not chained in every expression to conditions as strict as those which govern all physical effects nor is god any less excellently revealed in nature s actions than in the sacred statements of the bible perhaps this is what tertullian meant by these words we conclude that god is known first through nature and then again more particularly by doctrine by nature in his works and by doctrine in his revealed word galileo galilei letter to the grand duchess christina 1615 97 galileo galilei was a catholic 98 scientist during the scientific revolution initially a beneficiary of church patronage of astronomy galileo rose to prominence with the publication of starry messenger in 1610 which included astronomical observations made possible by the 1608 invention of the telescope he was feted in rome honoured by the jesuits of the roman college and received by pope paul v and church dignitaries 99 in 1613 his letters on sunspots was published which reported his 1610 telescopic observations of the full set of phases of venus strong evidence that geocentrism was false 100 101 a publicist and a partisan 102 in addition to being a scholar galileo argued in the letter to the grand duchess christina 1615 103 that the language of the bible had been accommodated to be understandable to uneducated people and should therefore not be interpreted as literal scientific descriptions 104 and the church risked reputational damage in the long run if it officially condemned heliocentrism 105 106 107 he invited the church to follow established practice and reinterpret scripture in light of the new scientific discoveries 108 78 quoting cardinal baronius that the intention of the holy ghost is to teach us how one goes to heaven not how heaven goes d 109 the leading jesuit theologian cardinal robert bellarmine agreed this would be an appropriate response to a true demonstration that the sun was at the center of the universe heliocentrism but cautioned that the existing materials upon which galileo relied did not yet constitute an established truth 99 cardinal carlo conti privately told galileo that scripture could potentially accommodate a moving earth but also cautioned galileo against publicly adopting such views without great necessity 110 galileo received staunch support from a carmelite friar paolo antonio foscarini who published a book defending galileo s heliocentrism and presenting it as compatible with the bible 111 but also bitter opposition from some philosophers and clerics two of whom denounced him to the roman inquisition early in 1615 warning that galileo should not go outside mathematics and physics and should avoid provoking theologians by teaching them how to read the bible 112 one of the philosophers who issued a complaint to the inquisition was tommaso caccini who disregarded galileo as a mathematician and strongly attacked him in his sermons ordering him to withdraw from philosophy and citing acts 1 11 ye men of galilee why stand ye gazing up into heaven 113 the report of the inquisition s consultants declared heliocentrism as false and contrary to scripture in february 1616 114 115 although maurice finocchiaro notes that copernicanism was never formally declared to be heresy as the congregation of the holy office did not endorse the consultant s report and refused to follow through with an official declaration 116 on 26 february cardinal bellarmine visited galileo and informed him of the inquisition s decision explaining that although copernicanism could be a viable theory it was not proven true as such the church could not abandon the common interpretation of scripture for a hypothesis 117 bellarmine argued that should a decisive proof of earth s motion be found the church would admit that we do not understand them rather than say that something that has been proved is false he then demanded galileo to stop teaching and defending copernican theory to which galileo agreed 118 bellarmine met with the pope on 3 march and informed him of galileo s compliance 119 that month the church s congregation of the index issued a decree suspending de revolutionibus because the idea that the earth moves and the sun does not was false and altogether opposed to holy scripture 120 the edits to de revolutionibus which omitted or altered nine sentences were issued four years later in 1620 121 galileo galilei the trial of 1633 edit further information galileo affair trial and second judgment 1633 in 1623 galileo s friend maffeo barberini was elected as pope urban viii urban viii was an intellectual and patron of the arts and architecture who had written poetry as a young man in praise of galileo s astronomical writings galileo met with the new pope hoping to persuade him to lift the 1616 ban 122 urban viii had been an ally of galileo ever since he became a cardinal and provided funding for galileo s work the pope s correspondence also reveals that he was privately sympathetic to copernacnism but did not wish to publicly admit so 123 on the condition that it remain an objective analysis of competing cosmologies the pope permitted galileo to publish a book on the copernican hypothesis however the resulting dialogue concerning the two chief world systems explicitly endorsed the copernican model because the book appeared with the pope s endorsement on its title page 124 it appeared that the church officially supported heliocentrism compromising urban viii s position 125 as well as personally offending him as his own arguments were put into the mouth of the buffoon like simplicio in the dialogue 126 according to finocchiaro although urban viii himself sympathised with galileo and wanted him to merely revise the dialogue galileo s attacks on influential clerical figures and massive backlash forced him to act the position of the pope was also greatly endangered by the ongoing thirty years war which pressured him to reaffirm his authority 127 william rené shea es argues that galileo attracted the interest of the inquisition by getting involved in theological matters galileo insisted that heliocentrism was of undoubted certainty and said the scriptural interpretations that seemed to suggest otherwise should be re evaluated 108 78 cristiano banti s 1857 painting galileo facing the roman inquisition galileo was summoned to rome to be tried by the inquisition in 1633 he was accused of violating the 1616 ban that forbade him from teaching or defending his theory 128 and breaking his agreement with the pope as instead of following through the compromise of urban viii to present his theory as a hypothesis and an instrument of prediction and calculation galileo presented his beliefs as factual and unconditional 127 dialogue received backlash for its rhetorical excesses and biting sarcasm including attacking several clerical figures 127 finocchiaro notes that the trial was focused on philosophy and galileo claimed to have spent more years studying philosophy than months studying pure mathematics 129 galileo was supported by several catholic figures such as monsignor piero dini carmelite paolo antonio foscarini and a dominican tommaso campanella his trial in 1633 made him gain sympathy from more clergy like ascanio ii piccolomini and fulgenzio micanzio 130 galileo was found vehemently suspect of heresy for following the position of copernicus which is contrary to the true sense and authority of holy scripture 131 galileo was forced to recant and was sentenced to house arrest with the sentence being commuted on 23 june 1633 132 while under house arrest galileo wrote his most influential work two new sciences despite discussing the motion of earth and endorsing copernican theory galileo did not suffer any harm from the inquisition for publishing this book even though it reached rome s bookstores in january 1639 and all available copies were quickly sold 133 finocchario argues that since the inquisition allowed galileo s two new sciences to later be published despite endorsing the copernican theory galileo s trial was not a condemnation of heliocentrism but rather a condemnation of galileo s attempt to reinterpret the bible which was seen as especially dangerous amid the counter reformation 134 after the revolution edit the scientific revolution of the 17th century was a fundamental restructuring of human civilization that included a decoupling of knowledge production from either religious sponsorship or authority historians of science continue to debate the magnitude of this shift did the revolution merely outshine everything since the rise of christianity 135 or is the better comparison actually to the neolithic revolution 136 profane universe edit see also religious cosmology galileo s early 17th century telescopic observations began the transformation of what had been a narrowly technical revision of classical astronomy by copernicus the pious church official into an increasingly disorienting challenge to traditional cosmology this shift began by reimagining the earth as an unremarkable planet in motion it would eventually culminate in a vision of a world circulating purposelessly around an ordinary star no different from an uncountable number of others this transformation posed a threat not only to the long standing synthesis of aristotelian physics and christian theology e but also to a view of the universe whose spiritual significance had once been transparent to the faithful 138 139 140 in its place modern astronomy offered a view of the universe in which the celestial realm had vanished and the physical location of human beings appeared to lack any religious meaning or significance 141 142 the end of the human centered cosmos was eventually part of a complete replacement of a finite 143 and qualitative world by an infinite and quantitative one that replacement appeared to leave human beings alone in a silent infinite universe where existence was no longer a reflection of divine values but merely a neutral fact of mathematics the science historian alexandre koyré memorably described this unintended outcome of the scientific revolution the stripping of hierarchical order purpose and meaning from the universe as the utter devalorization of being 144 in his pensees published in 1670 after his death but which the author had intended to be titled apologie de la religion chrétienne defence of the christian religion before he died the mathematician philosopher and catholic writer blaise pascal wrote that the eternal silence of these infinite spaces frightens me 145 understanding without belief edit further information relationship between science and religion independence and fact value distinction religion and science the upheaval of the scientific revolution extended beyond a specific problem of cosmology to a broader epistemological challenge that decisively overthrew the medieval view of natural philosophy as the servant or handmaiden of theology 12 galileo kepler and others argued that the book of nature was separate from the book of scripture and that only the latter was designed to tell humans how to go to heaven 146 francis bacon went even farther to warn his 17th century contemporaries against the corruption of philosophy by superstition and an admixture of theology and the unwholesome mixture of things human and divine which was liable to produce not only fantastic philosophy but also heretical religion too 147 bacon urged natural philosophers to give to faith that only which is faith s 148 while the era s scientists were almost always highly devout as individuals 149 their day to day practices as scientists increasingly followed a mechanistic logic 150 that left no room for any mixing of the measurable with the miraculous as natural philosophy continued to grow in power self confidence and independence during the 17th century the intellectual attitude of educated people shifted from fides quaerens intellectum toward a mode of understanding increasingly detached from religion let us take for a moment a typical well educated european in 1600 he believes in witchcraft he believes circe really did turn odysseus s crew into pigs he believes mice are spontaneously generated in piles of straw he believes that nature abhors a vacuum he believes the rainbow is a sign from god and that comets portend evil he believes of course that the earth stands still and the sun and stars turn around the earth once every twenty four hours but now let us jump far ahead to 1733 he does not know anyone or at least not anyone educated and reasonably sophisticated who believes in witches magic alchemy or astrology he thinks the odyssey is fiction not fact he knows that the rainbow is produced by refracted light and that comets have no significance for our lives on earth he believes that the future cannot be predicted he knows that the heart is a pump he believes that science is going to transform the world and that the moderns have outstripped the ancients in every possible respect he has trouble believing in miracles even the ones in the bible between 1600 and 1733 the intellectual world of the educated elite changed more rapidly than at any time in previous history the only name we have for this great transformation is the scientific revolution 151 observational astronomy edit main articles vatican observatory and vatican advanced technology telescope between 1650 and 1750 four observatories run by the catholic church were among the best solar observatories in the world built largely to fix an unquestionable date for easter they also housed instruments that threw light on the disputed geometry of the solar system 152 vatican observatory in 1789 the vatican observatory specola vaticana an astronomical research and educational institution supported by the holy see opened it was moved to castel gandolfo the summer residence of the pope in the 1930s the vatican advanced technology telescope at the mount graham international observatory began operation in arizona usa in 1995 153 many distinguished scholars have worked at the observatory in 2008 the templeton prize was awarded to cosmologist fr michał heller a vatican observatory adjunct scholar in 2010 the george van biesbroeck prize was awarded to former observatory director fr george coyne sj 154 in 2014 the director of the observatory brother guy consolmagno sj was awarded the american astronomical society s carl sagan medal for excellence in public communication in planetary science perhaps one of the greatest contributions made by the jesuits to science is the large network of observatories they founded across the world jesuits devised modern lunar nomenclature and stellar classification and some 35 craters of the moon are named after jesuits historian jonathan wright writes that jesuits observed in some cases before anyone else the colored bands on jupiter s surface the and...
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