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ce through threats 74 fraud 75 or breach of contract 76 the use of defensive or retaliatory force on the other hand is appropriate 77 objectivism claims that because the opportunity to use reason without the initiation of force is necessary to achieve moral values each individual has an inalienable moral right to act as his own judgment directs and to keep the product of his effort peikoff explaining the basis of rights stated in content as the founding fathers recognized there is one fundamental right which has several major derivatives the fundamental right is the right to life its major derivatives are the right to liberty property and the pursuit of happiness 78 a right is a moral principle defining and sanctioning a man s freedom of action in a social context 79 these rights are specifically understood to be rights to action not to specific results or objects and the obligations created by rights are negative in nature each individual must refrain from violating the rights of others 80 objectivists reject alternative notions of rights such as positive rights 81 collective rights or animal rights 82 objectivism claims that the only social system which fully recognizes individual rights is capitalism 83 specifically what rand described as full pure uncontrolled unregulated laissez faire capitalism 84 objectivism regards capitalism as the social system which is most beneficial to the poor but does not consider this its primary justification 85 rather it is the only moral social system objectivism maintains that only societies seeking to establish freedom or free nations have a right to self determination 86 objectivism describes government as the means of placing the retaliatory use of physical force under objective control i e under objectively defined laws thus government is both legitimate and critically important 87 in order to protect individual rights 88 rand opposed anarchism because she considered that putting police and courts on the market is an inherent miscarriage of justice 89 objectivism claims that the proper functions of a government are the police to protect men from criminals the armed services to protect men from foreign invaders the law courts to settle disputes among men according to objective laws the executive and legislatures 90 furthermore in protecting individual rights the government is acting as an agent of its citizens and has no rights except the rights delegated to it by the citizens 91 and it must act in an impartial manner according to specific objectively defined laws 92 rand argued that limited intellectual property monopolies being granted to certain inventors and artists on a first to file basis are moral because she considered all property as fundamentally intellectual furthermore the value of a commercial product derives in part from the necessary work of its inventors however rand considered limits on patents and copyrights as important and said that if they were granted in perpetuity it would necessarily result in de facto collectivism rand opposed racism and any legal application of racism she considered affirmative action to be an example of legal racism 93 rand advocated the right to legal abortion 94 rand believed capital punishment is morally justified as retribution against a murderer but dangerous due to the risk of mistakenly executing innocent people and facilitating state murder she therefore said she opposed capital punishment on epistemological not moral grounds 95 rand opposed involuntary military conscription 96 she opposed any form of censorship including legal restrictions on pornography opinion or worship rand famously quipped in the transition to statism every infringement of human rights has begun with a given right s least attractive practitioners 97 98 objectivists have also opposed a number of government activities commonly endorsed by both liberals and conservatives including antitrust laws 99 the minimum wage public education 100 and existing child labor laws 101 objectivists have argued against faith based initiatives 102 displaying religious symbols in government facilities 103 and the teaching of intelligent design in public schools 104 rand opposed involuntary taxation and believed government could be financed voluntarily although she thought this could only happen after other reforms of government were implemented 105 106 criticism on politics edit some critics including economists and political philosophers such as murray rothbard david d friedman roy childs norman p barry and chandran kukathas have argued that objectivist ethics are consistent with anarcho capitalism instead of minarchism 107 108 109 110 111 aesthetics metaphysical value judgments edit see also romantic realism the objectivist theory of art derives from its epistemology by way of psycho epistemology rand s term for an individual s characteristic mode of functioning in acquiring knowledge art according to objectivism serves a human cognitive need it allows human beings to understand concepts as though they were percepts objectivism defines art as a selective re creation of reality according to an artist s metaphysical value judgments that is according to what the artist believes to be ultimately true and important about the nature of reality and humanity in this respect objectivism regards art as a way of presenting abstractions concretely in perceptual form 112 the human need for art according to this idea derives from the need for cognitive economy a concept is already a sort of mental shorthand standing for a large number of concretes allowing a human being to think indirectly or implicitly of many more such concretes than can be kept explicitly in mind but a human being cannot keep indefinitely many concepts explicitly in mind either and yet according to objectivism they need a comprehensive conceptual framework to provide guidance in life art offers a way out of this dilemma by providing a perceptual easily grasped means of communicating and thinking about a wide range of abstractions including one s metaphysical value judgments objectivism regards art as an effective way to communicate a moral or ethical ideal 113 objectivism does not however regard art as propagandistic even though art involves moral values and ideals its purpose is not to educate only to show or project moreover art need not be and usually is not the outcome of a full blown explicit philosophy usually it stems from an artist s sense of life which is preconceptual and largely emotional 114 the end goal of rand s own artistic endeavors was to portray the ideal man the fountainhead is the best example of this effort 115 rand uses the character of roark to embody the concept of the higher man which she believes is what great art should do embody the characteristics of the best of humanity this symbolism should be represented in all art artistic expression should be an extension of the greatness in humanity rand said that romanticism was the highest school of literary art noting that romanticism was based on the recognition of the principle that man possesses the faculty of volition absent which rand believed literature is robbed of dramatic power adding what the romanticists brought to art was the primacy of values values are the source of emotions a great deal of emotional intensity was projected in the work of the romanticists and in the reactions of their audiences as well as a great deal of color imagination originality excitement and all the other consequences of a value oriented view of life 116 the term romanticism however is often affiliated with emotionalism to which objectivism is completely opposed historically many romantic artists were philosophically subjectivist most objectivists who are also artists subscribe to what they term romantic realism which is how rand described her own work 117 development by other authors edit see also objectivist movement philosophers such as leonard peikoff tibor machan harry binswanger and tara smith clockwise from upper left have worked on objectivism since rand s death several authors have developed and applied rand s ideas in their own work rand described peikoff s the ominous parallels 1982 as the first book by an objectivist philosopher other than myself 118 during 1991 peikoff published objectivism the philosophy of ayn rand a comprehensive exposition of rand s philosophy 119 chris matthew sciabarra discusses rand s ideas and theorizes about their intellectual origins in ayn rand the russian radical 1995 surveys such as on ayn rand by allan gotthelf 1999 ayn rand by tibor r machan 2000 and objectivism in one lesson by andrew bernstein 2009 provide briefer introductions to rand s ideas some scholars have emphasized applying objectivism to more specific areas machan has developed rand s contextual conception of human knowledge while also drawing on the insights of j l austin and gilbert harman in works such as objectivity 2004 and david kelley has explicated rand s epistemological ideas in works such as the evidence of the senses 1986 and a theory of abstraction 2001 regarding the topic of ethics kelley has argued in works such as unrugged individualism 1996 and the contested legacy of ayn rand 2000 that objectivists should pay more attention to the virtue of benevolence and place less emphasis on issues of moral sanction kelley s claims have been controversial and critics peikoff and peter schwartz have argued that he contradicts important principles of objectivism 5 120 kelley has used the term open objectivism for a version of objectivism that involves a commitment to reasoned non dogmatic discussion and debate the recognition that objectivism is open to expansion refinement and revision and a policy of benevolence toward others including fellow travelers and critics 121 arguing against kelley peikoff characterized objectivism as a closed system that is not subject to change 5 an author who emphasizes rand s ethics tara smith retains more of rand s original ideas in such works as moral rights and political freedom 1995 viable values 2000 and ayn rand s normative ethics 2006 122 in collaboration with peikoff david harriman has developed a theory of scientific induction based upon rand s theory of concepts in the logical leap induction in physics 2010 123 the political aspects of rand s philosophy are discussed by bernstein in the capitalist manifesto 2005 in capitalism a treatise on economics 1996 george reisman attempts to integrate objectivist methodology and insights with both classical and austrian economics in psychology professor edwin a locke and ellen kenner have explored rand s ideas in the publication the selfish path to romance how to love with passion reason 124 other writers have explored the application of objectivism to fields ranging from art as in what art is 2000 by louis torres and michelle marder kamhi to teleology as in the biological basis of teleological concepts 1990 by harry binswanger impact edit one rand biographer says most people who read rand s works for the first time do it in their formative years 125 rand s former protégé nathaniel branden referred to rand s especially powerful appeal to the young 126 while onkar ghate eo sq of the ayn rand institute said rand appeals to the idealism of youth 127 new archival link needed this appeal has alarmed a number of critics of the philosophy 128 many of these young people later abandon their positive opinion of rand and are often said to have outgrown her ideas 129 endorsers of rand s work recognize the phenomenon but attribute it to the loss of youthful idealism and inability to resist social pressures for intellectual conformity 127 129 in contrast historian jennifer burns writing in goddess of the market 2009 writes some critics dismiss rand as a shallow thinker appealing only to adolescents although she thinks the critics miss her significance as a gateway drug to right wing politics 130 academic philosophers have generally dismissed objectivism since rand first presented it 6 objectivism has been termed fiercely anti academic because of rand s criticism of contemporary intellectuals 4 david sidorsky a professor of moral and political philosophy at columbia university writes that rand s work is outside the mainstream and is more of an ideology than a comprehensive philosophy 131 british philosopher ted honderich notes that he deliberately excluded an article on rand from the oxford companion to philosophy rand is however mentioned in the article on popular philosophy by anthony quinton 132 rand is the subject of entries in the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy 2 the dictionary of modern american philosophers 133 the internet encyclopedia of philosophy 134 the routledge dictionary of twentieth century political thinkers 135 and the penguin dictionary of philosophy 136 chandran kukathas writes in an entry about rand in the routledge encyclopedia of philosophy the influence of rand s ideas was strongest among college students in the usa but attracted little attention from academic philosophers kukathas also writes that her defenses of capitalism and selfishness kept her out of the intellectual mainstream 109 during the 1990s rand s works were more likely to be encountered in american classrooms 4 the ayn rand society dedicated to fostering the scholarly study of objectivism is affiliated with the american philosophical association s eastern division 137 aristotle scholar and objectivist allan gotthelf late chairman of the society and his colleagues argued for more academic study of objectivism considering the philosophy as a unique and intellectually interesting defense of classical liberalism that is worth debating 138 in 1999 a refereed journal of ayn rand studies began 139 programs and fellowships for the study of objectivism have been supported at the university of pittsburgh university of texas at austin and university of north carolina at chapel hill 140 see also edit libertarianism portal bibliography of ayn rand and objectivism objectivism and homosexuality objectivism and libertarianism objectivist periodicals philosophical fiction economic subjectivism references edit 1 2 about the author in rand 1992 pp 1170 1171 1 2 badhwar long 2020 contemporary authors online s v leonard peikoff accessed march 2 2008 1 2 3 mclemee scott september 1999 the heirs of ayn rand has objectivism gone subjective lingua franca 9 6 45 55 1 2 3 peikoff 1989b 1 2 sciabarra 2013 p 1 badhwar long 2020 gotthelf 2000 p 1 machan 2000 p 9 heyl 1995 p 223 burns 2020 p 259 cocks 2020 p 11 burns 2009 p 4 gladstein 2009 pp 107 108 124 sciabarra 1995 pp 1 2 1 2 rubin harriet september 15 2007 ayn rand s literature of capitalism the new york times retrieved september 18 2007 rand 1967 p 23 peikoff 1991 p 36 peikoff 1991 pp 4 11 rand 1992 p 1040 peikoff 1991 p 11 rand ayn 1996 1961 for the new intellectual the philosophy of ayn rand new york signet isbn 0 451 16308 7 rand 1992 p 1016 peikoff 1991 pp 31...
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