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ulators 74 the efficiency in electric systems is analyzed by similar processes and includes the efficiency of electricity generation though the efficiency of radiant systems is under constant debate with no shortage of anecdotal claims and scientific papers presenting both sides the low return fluid temperatures in heating and high return fluid temperatures in cooling enable condensing boilers 75 chillers 76 and heat pumps 77 to operate at or near their maximum engineered performance 78 79 the greater efficiency of wire to water versus wire to air flow due to water s significantly greater heat capacity favors fluid based systems over air based systems 80 both field application and simulation research have demonstrated significant electrical energy savings with radiant cooling and dedicated outdoor air systems based in part on the previous noted principles 81 82 in passive houses r 2000 homes or net zero energy buildings the low temperatures of radiant heating and cooling systems present significant opportunities to exploit exergy 83 in residential underfloor heating ufh systems the material of the manifold plays a crucial role in thermal performance and durability nickel plated brass manifolds are widely used due to higher thermal conductivity and improved corrosion resistance compared to stainless steel alternatives research from industry bodies indicates that nickel plated brass manifolds can enhance system efficiency and longevity in ufh applications 84 85 efficiency considerations for flooring surface materials edit system efficiency is also affected by the floor covering serving as the radiational boundary layer between the floor mass and occupants and other contents of the conditioned space for example carpeting has a greater resistance or lower conductance than tile thus carpeted floors need to operate at higher internal temperatures than tile which can create lower efficiencies for boilers and heat pumps however when the floor covering is known at the time the system is installed then the internal floor temperature required for a given covering can be achieved through proper tube spacing without sacrificing plant efficiency though the higher internal floor temperatures may result in increased heat loss from the non room surfaces of the floor 86 the emissivity reflectivity and absorptivity of a floor surface are critical determinants of its heat exchange with the occupants and room unpolished flooring surface materials and treatments have very high emissivity s 0 85 to 0 95 and therefore make good heat radiators 87 with underfloor heating and cooling reversible floors flooring surfaces with high absorbance and emissivity and low reflectivity are most desirable thermographic evaluation edit thermographic images of a room heated with low temperature radiant heating shortly after starting up the system thermography is a useful tool to see the actual thermal efficacy of an underfloor system from its start up as shown to its operating conditions in a startup it is easy to identify the tube location but less so as the system moves into a steady state condition it is important to interpret thermographic images correctly as is the case with finite element analysis fea what is seen reflects the conditions at the time of the image and may not represent the steady conditions for example the surfaces viewed in the images shown may appear hot but in reality are actually below the nominal temperature of the skin and core temperatures of the human body and the ability to see the pipes does not equate to feel the pipes thermography can also point out flaws in the building enclosures left image corner intersection detail thermal bridging right image studs and the heat losses associated with exterior doors center image global examples of large modern buildings using radiant heating and cooling edit 41 cooper square united states akron art museum united states bmw welt germany california academy of sciences united states copenhagen opera house denmark ewha womans university south korea hearst tower new york city united states manitoba hydro place canada national renewable energy laboratory research support facility united states pearl river tower china post tower germany suvarnabhumi airport 88 bangkok see also edit wikimedia commons has media related to underfloor heating american society of heating refrigerating and air conditioning engineers electric heating heat recovery ventilation hydronics gloria heating system heater types of heaters hypocaust kang bed stove psychrometrics ondol renewable heat underfloor air distribution references edit 1 2 bean r olesen b kim k w history of radiant heating and cooling systems ashrae journal part 1 january 2010 guo q 2005 chinese architecture and planning ideas methods techniques sttutgart edition axel menges part 1 chpt 2 pg 20 27 pringle h 2007 the battle over amaknak bridge archeology 60 3 a history and use of ondol korea s traditional heating system gwangju 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