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may be the result of a historical process whereby vowel features such as labialization and palatalization were reassigned to adjacent consonants for example ancestral ki may have become kʲə and ku may have become kʷə losing the old vowels i and u but gaining the new consonants kʲ and kʷ the linguist john colarusso has further postulated that some instances of this may also be due to the levelling of an old grammatical class prefix system so w ka may have become kʷa on the basis of pairs like ubykh ɡʲə vs kabardian and abkhaz ɡʷə heart this same process is claimed by some who to lie behind the development of labiovelars in proto indo european which once neighboured proto nwc lack of distinctive vowels and wealth of distinctive consonants edit the entire family is characterised by a paucity of phonemic vowels two or three depending upon the analysis coupled with rich consonantal systems that include many forms of secondary articulation 3 ubykh ubyx for example had two vowels and probably the largest inventory of consonants outside southern africa grammar edit northwest caucasian languages have rather simple noun systems with only a handful of cases at the most coupled with highly agglutinative verbal systems that can contain almost the entire syntactic structure of the sentence all finite verbs are marked for agreement with three arguments absolutive ergative and indirect object 7 and there are also a wide range of applicative constructions there is a split between dynamic and stative verbs with dynamic verbs having an especially complex morphology a verb s morphemes indicate the subject s and object s person place time manner of action negative and other types of grammatical categories all northwest caucasian languages are left branching so that the verb comes at the end of the sentence and modifiers such as relative clauses precede a noun northwest caucasian languages do not generally permit more than one finite verb in a sentence which precludes the existence of subordinate clauses in the indo european sense equivalent functions are performed by extensive arrays of nominal and participial non finite verb forms though abkhaz appears to be developing limited subordinate clauses perhaps under the influence of russian classification edit northwest caucasian family tree percentage of total northwest caucasian speakers by language kabardian 67 0 adyghe 23 5 abkhaz 7 60 abaza 1 90 ubykh 0 00 see also proto northwest caucasian language there are five recognized languages in the northwest caucasian family abkhaz abaza kabardian or east circassian adyghe or west circassian and ubykh 3 8 they are classified as follows northwest caucasian family abaza abkhaz languages abaza 49 800 speakers abkhaz 190 110 speakers circassian adyghe 590 000 kabardian east adyghe 1 685 000 ubykh circassian dialect continuum edit see also circassian language and proto circassian language circassian cherkess is a cover term for the series of dialects that include the literary languages of adyghe and kabardian adyghe edit adyghe is one of the more widely spoken northwest caucasian languages it has 500 000 speakers spread throughout russia and the middle east 280 000 in turkey 125 000 in russia where it is official in the republic of adygea 45 000 in jordan 25 000 in syria 20 000 in iraq and 4 000 in israel there is even a small community in the united states four main dialects are recognised temirgoy abadzekh shapsugh and bzhedugh as well as many minor ones such as hakuchi spoken by the last speakers of ubykh in turkey adyghe has many consonants between 50 and 60 consonants in the various adyghe dialects but it has only three phonemic vowels its consonants and consonant clusters are less complex than the abkhaz abaza dialects an example of spoken adyghe and kabardian kabardian edit kabardian has just over one million speakers 550 000 in turkey and 450 000 in russia where it is an official language of the republics of kabardino balkaria and karachay cherkessia kabardian has the fewest consonants of any north western caucasian language with 48 including some rather unusual ejective fricatives and a small number of vowels kabardian itself has several dialects including terek the literary standard and besleney which is intelligible with both terek and adyghe unlike the adyghe kabardian lost many of the consonants that existed in the proto circassian language for example the consonants ʃʷʼ ʐʷ ʂʷ ʐ ʂ tsʷ dzʷ became fʼ v f ʑ ɕ f v abkhaz abaza dialect continuum edit abkhaz edit abkhaz has 100 000 speakers in abkhazia a de facto independent republic but a de jure autonomous entity within georgia where it is the official language and an unknown number of speakers in turkey it has been a literary language from the beginning of the 20th century abkhaz and abaza may be said to be dialects of the same language but each preserves phonemes which the other has lost abkhaz is characterised by unusual consonant clusters and one of the world s smallest vowel inventories it has only two distinctive vowels an open vowel a and a mid vowel ə next to palatalized or labialized consonants a is realized as e or o and ə as i or u there are three major dialects abzhuy and bzyp in abkhazia and sadz in turkey abaza edit abaza has some 45 000 speakers 35 000 in russia and 10 000 in turkey it is a literary language but nowhere official it shares with abkhaz the distinction of having just two phonemic vowels abaza is phonologically more complex than abkhaz and is characterised by large consonant clusters similar to those that can be found in georgian there are two major dialects tapant and ashkhar some are partially intelligible with abkhaz ubykh edit ubykh forms a third branch with parallels to both adyghe and abkhaz the population switched to speaking adyghe and ubykh became extinct on 7 october 1992 with the death of tevfik esenç a dialectal division within ubykh was suspected by georges dumézil but the divergent form he described in 1965 was never investigated further with eighty one consonants ubykh had perhaps the largest inventory in the world aside from the kxʼa and tuu families of southern africa with their extensive system of clicks there are pharyngealised consonants and a four way place contrast among sibilants it was the only northwest caucasian language never to have a literary form see also edit proto northwest caucasian language northeast caucasian languages north caucasian languages references edit archived copy pdf archived from the original on 13 august 2017 retrieved 20 may 2017 cite web cs1 maint archived copy as title link matthews w k 2013 languages of the ussr cambridge university press p 147 isbn 9781107623552 1 2 3 hoiberg dale h 2010 unesco atlas of the world s languages in danger www unesco org retrieved 3 june 2018 liljencrafts johan and lindblom björn 1972 numerical simulation of vowel quality systems the role of perceptual contrast language vol 48 no 4 page 845 a linear vowel system is described by trubetzkoy 1958 87 he attributes such systems to caucasian languages abkhaz and adyge and with some hesitation ubykh the phonetic realizations of these vowels exhibit rich consonant determined variation page 857 these observations bear to mind the phonological systems of caucasian languages such as kabardia whose underlying vowel segments are confined to a and a but whose consonant system is extreme halle m 1970 is kabardian a vowel less language foundations of language 6 pages 95 103 nichols johanna 1986 chirikba viacheslav 1996 p 452 sources edit burney charles 2004 historical dictionary of the hittites historical dictionaries of ancient civilizations and historical era lanham md scarecrow press isbn 978 0810849365 chirikba viacheslav 1996 common west caucasian the reconstruction of its phonological system and parts of its lexicon and morphology leiden research school cnws school of asian african and amerindian studies isbn 978 9073782716 colarusso john 1997 phyletic links between proto indo european and proto northwest caucasian the journal of indo european studies 25 1 2 chicago linguistic society 119 151 colarusso john 2003 further etymologies between indo european and northwest caucasian in holisky dee ann tuite kevin eds current trends in caucasian east european and inner asian linguistics papers in honor of howard aronson current issues in linguistic theory amsterdam john benjamins publishing company pp 41 60 isbn 978 1588114617 hoiberg dale h ed 2010 abkhazo adyghian languages encyclopedia britannica vol i a ak bayes 15th ed chicago il encyclopedia britannica inc p 33 isbn 978 1 59339 837 8 nichols johanna march 1986 head marking and dependent marking grammar language 62 1 linguistic society of america 56 119 doi 10 1353 lan 1986 0014 jstor 415601 s2cid 144574879 further reading edit starostin s a ed 2008 1994 a north caucasian etymological dictionary caravan books isbn 978 0882061177 arkadiev peter lander yury 2021 the northwest caucasian languages in maria polinsky ed the oxford handbook of languages of the caucasus oxford handbooks oxford university press pp 369 446 doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780190690694 013 3 isbn 9780190690694 accessed 1 july 2026 o herin brian 2021 abaza and abkhaz in maria polinsky ed the oxford handbook of languages of the caucasus oxford handbooks oxford university press pp 447 488 doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780190690694 013 16 isbn 9780190690694 accessed 1 july 2026 external links edit wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at appendix proto northwest caucasian reconstructions cia linguistic map of the caucasus atlas of the caucasian languages with detailed language guide by yuri b koryakov a comparative dictionary of north caucasian languages preface by sergei starostin sergein nikolayev ancient adyghe abkhaz abaza ubykh alphabet v t e north caucasian languages the proposed north caucasian language family comprises the northeast and northwest caucasian language families northwest pontic abaza abkhaz abaza abkhaz bzyb circassian adyghe abzakh bzhedug hatuqay makhosh mamkhegh shapsug hakuchi kfar kama natukhaj kabardian kabardian proper besleney other ubykh chakobsa hattic proposed northeast caspian avar andic avar andic andi akhvakh bagvalal tindi botlix godoberi chamalal karata tukita dargic chirag north central mehweb gapshima butri lez muira ru tsudaqar usisha ru north dargwa aqusha literary dargwa murego gubden uk kadar mugi ru upper mulebki urakhi southern ashti kubachi sanzhi itsari amuzgi shiri sanakari chakhrizhi southwestern dargwa sirhwa lez uk tanti upper vurqni ru kaitag shari kaitag shari tsezic bezhta hunzib khwarshi inkhoqwari hinukh tsez lezgic archi samur eastern aghul lezgian tabasaran udi caucasian albanian southern budukh kryts jek western rutul tsakhur nakh bats vainakh chechen aukh ingush other khinalug lak italics indicate extinct languages v t e languages of the caucasus caucasian areal south kartvelian karto zan georgian judaeo georgian old georgian zan laz mingrelian svan dval northeast caspian avar andic andic andi akhvakh bagvalal tindi botlikh godoberi chamalal karata tukita avar dargin chirag north central mehweb gapshima butri lez muira ru tsudaqar usisha ru north dargwa aqusha literary dargwa murego gubden uk kadar mugi ru upper mulebki urakhi southern ashti kubachi sanzhi itsari amuzgi shiri sanakari chakhrizhi southwestern dargwa sirhwa lez uk tanti upper vurqni ru kaitag shari kaitag shari lezgic archi samur eastern aghul lezgin tabasaran southern budukh kryts jek western rutul tsakhur udi caucasian albanian nakh bats vainakh chechen aukh ingush tsezic didoic bezhta hunzib khwarshi hinukh tsez others khinalug lak northwest pontic abkhaz abaza abaza abkhaz bzyb chakobsa circassian adyghe kabardian ubykh indo european iranian cimmerian kurdish kurmanji ossetian alanic persian talysh kilit tat judeo tat slavic belarusian russian ukrainian others armenian classical armenian middle armenian eastern western zok german pontic greek turkic kipchak karachay balkar kumyk nogai urum oghuz azerbaijani turkish turkmen others kalmyk oirat lomavren northeastern neo aramaic assyrian bohtan armazic shirvani arabic italics indicate extinct languages languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left see also languages of armenia languages of azerbaijan languages of georgia languages of russia v t e primary language families africa afroasiatic austronesian khoe kwadi kxʼa niger congo atlantic congo dogon ijoid katloid kru lafofa mande rashad siamou talodi heiban ubangian nilo saharan berta bʼaga central sudanic daju eastern jebel furan kadu koman gule kresh kuliak kunama nara nilotic nubian nyima maban mimi of decorse saharan songhay surmic taman temein tuu isolates bangime hadza jalaa laal meroitic ongota sandawe shabo eurasia europe and asia afroasiatic ainu austroasiatic austronesian chukotko kamchatkan dravidian digaro eskaleut great andamanese hmong mien hurro urartian indo european japonic kartvelian kho bwa koreanic kra dai mijiic miju mongolic nivkh northeast caucasian northwest caucasian ongan siangic sino tibetan tungusic turkic tyrsenian uralic xiongnu yeniseian yukaghir isolates basque bugun burushaski digaro mishmi elamite eteocretan eteocypriot hattic hruso idu mishmi kenaboi kusunda minoan nihali north picene philistine puroik shompen songlin sumerian tambora vedda zakhring new guinea and the pacific arai samaia austronesian binanderean goilalan border bulaka river central solomons chimbu wahgi demta sentani doso turumsa east geelvink bay east new britain east strickland eleman engan fas foja range gogodala suki hatam mansim kaure kosare kiwaian kutubuan lakes plain lower mamberamo lower sepik madang mairasi mantion meax north bougainville north halmahera pauwasi ramu senagi senu river sepik skou south bougainville teberan pawaian torricelli trans fly trans new guinea turama kikorian upper yuat west bird s head yam yawan yuat northwest papuan papuan gulf west new britain west papuan isolates abinomn abun anêm ata burmeso kol kuot maybrat mpur porome sulka taiap tambora yele australia bunuban eastern daly eastern tasmanian garawan gunwinyguan iwaidjan jarrakan maningrida mirndi northeastern tasmanian northern tasmanian nyulnyulan pama nyungan southern daly tangkic wagaydyic northern daly western daly western tasmanian worrorran arnhem macro gunwinyguan darwin region marrku wurrugu yangmanic wagiman isolates giimbiyu malak malak northern daly tiwi wagiman wardaman gaagudju kungarakany north america algic caddoan chimakuan chinookan chumashan comecrudan coosan eskaleut iroquoian kalapuyan maiduan muskogean na dene palaihnihan plateau penutian pomoan salishan shastan siouan tanoan tsimshianic utian uto aztecan wakashan wintuan yuki wappo yuman cochimí isolates alsea atakapa cayuse chimariko chitimacha coahuilteco cotoname esselen haida karuk kutenai natchez salinan seri siuslaw takelma timucua tonkawa tunica waikuri washo yana yuchi zuni keres yokuts mesoamerica arawakan ...
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