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to decompose forming various incomplete combustion products and free radicals and these products then react with each other and with the oxidizer involved in the reaction of the following flame fire one may investigate different parts of a candle flame with the aid of a cold metal spoon 5 the higher parts of the flame produce water vapor deposition the result of combustion the yellow parts in the middle produce soot and the area near the candle wick produces unburned wax goldsmiths use higher parts of a flame with a metallic blow pipe for melting gold and silver sufficient energy in the flame will excite the electrons in some of the transient reaction intermediates such as the methylidyne radical ch and diatomic carbon c 2 which results in the emission of visible light as these substances release their excess energy see spectrum below for an explanation of which specific radical species produce which specific colors as the combustion temperature of a flame increases if the flame contains small particles of unburnt carbon or other material so does the average energy of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the flame see black body other oxidizers besides oxygen can be used to produce a flame hydrogen burning in chlorine produces a flame and in the process emits gaseous hydrogen chloride hcl as the combustion product 6 another of many possible chemical combinations is hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide which is hypergolic and commonly used in rocket engines fluoropolymers can be used to supply fluorine as an oxidizer of metallic fuels e g in the magnesium teflon viton composition the chemical kinetics occurring in the flame are very complex and typically involve a large number of chemical reactions and intermediate species most of them radicals for instance a well known chemical kinetics scheme gri mech 7 uses 53 species and 325 elementary reactions to describe combustion of biogas there are different methods of distributing the required components of combustion to a flame in a diffusion flame oxygen and fuel diffuse into each other the flame occurs where they meet in a premixed flame the oxygen and fuel are premixed beforehand which results in a different type of flame candle flames a diffusion flame operate through evaporation of the fuel which rises in a laminar flow of hot gas which then mixes with surrounding oxygen and combusts color edit see also flame test and pyrotechnic colorant spectrum of the blue premixed i e complete combustion flame from a butane torch showing molecular radical band emission and swan bands virtually all the light produced is in the blue to green region of the spectrum below about 565 nanometers accounting for the bluish color of sootless hydrocarbon flames flame color depends on several factors the most important typically being black body radiation and spectral band emission with both spectral line emission and spectral line absorption playing smaller roles in the most common type of flame hydrocarbon flames the most important factor determining color is oxygen supply and the extent of fuel oxygen pre mixing which determines the rate of combustion and thus the temperature and reaction paths thereby producing different color hues different flame types of a bunsen burner depend on oxygen supply on the left a rich fuel with no premixed oxygen produces a yellow sooty diffusion flame on the right a lean fully oxygen premixed flame produces no soot and the flame color is produced by molecular radicals especially ch and c2 band emission in a laboratory under normal gravity conditions and with a closed air inlet a bunsen burner burns with yellow flame also called a safety flame with a peak temperature of about 2 000 k 3 100 f the yellow arises from incandescence of very fine soot particles that are produced in the flame also carbon monoxide is produced and the flame tends to take oxygen from the surfaces it touches when the air inlet is opened less soot and carbon monoxide are produced when enough air is supplied no soot or carbon monoxide is produced and the flame becomes blue most of this blue had previously been obscured by the bright yellow emissions the spectrum of a premixed complete combustion butane flame on the right shows that the blue color arises specifically due to emission of excited molecular radicals in the flame which emit most of their light well below 565 nanometers in the blue and green regions of the visible spectrum the colder part of a diffusion incomplete combustion flame will be red transitioning to orange yellow and white as the temperature increases as evidenced by changes in the black body radiation spectrum for a given flame s region the closer to white on this scale the hotter that section of the flame is the transitions are often apparent in fires in which the color emitted closest to the fuel is white with an orange section above it and reddish flames the highest of all 8 a blue colored flame only emerges when the amount of soot decreases and the blue emissions from excited molecular radicals become dominant though the blue can often be seen near the base of candles where airborne soot is less concentrated 9 specific colors can be imparted to the flame by introduction of excitable species with bright emission spectrum lines in analytical chemistry this effect is used in flame tests or flame emission spectroscopy to determine presence of some metal ions in pyrotechnics the pyrotechnic colorants are used to produce brightly colored fireworks temperature edit a flame test for sodium the yellow color in this gas flame does not arise from the black body emission of soot particles as the flame is clearly a blue premixed complete combustion flame but instead comes from the spectral line emission of sodium atoms specifically the very intense sodium d lines when looking at a flame s temperature there are many factors which can change or apply an important one is that a flame s color does not necessarily determine a temperature comparison because black body radiation is not the only thing that produces or determines the color seen therefore it is only an estimation of temperature other factors that determine its temperature are adiabatic flame i e no loss of heat to the atmosphere may differ in certain parts atmospheric pressure percentage oxygen content of the atmosphere the kind of fuel used i e depends on how quickly the process occurs how violent the combustion is any oxidation of the fuel temperature of atmosphere links to adiabatic flame temperature i e heat will transfer to a cooler atmosphere more quickly how stoichiometric the combustion process is a 1 1 stoichiometricity assuming no dissociation will have the highest flame temperature excess air oxygen will lower it as will lack of air oxygen the distance from the source of the flame i e the further from the source of the flame the lower temperature in fires particularly house fires the cooler flames are often red and produce the most smoke here the red color compared to typical yellow color of the flames suggests that the temperature is lower this is because there is a lack of oxygen in the room and therefore there is incomplete combustion and the flame temperature is low often just 600 to 850 c 1 112 to 1 562 f this means that a lot of carbon monoxide is formed which is a flammable gas which is when there is greatest risk of backdraft when this occurs combustible gases at or above the flash point of spontaneous combustion are exposed to oxygen carbon monoxide and superheated hydrocarbons combust and temporary temperatures of up to 2 000 c 3 630 f occur citation needed common flame temperatures edit this section may contain original research please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations statements consisting only of original research should be removed december 2019 learn how and when to remove this message this is a rough guide to flame temperatures for various common substances in 20 c 68 f air at 1 atm pressure material burned flame temperature butane 300 c 600 f a cool flame in low gravity 10 charcoal fire 750 1 200 c 1 382 2 192 f methane natural gas 900 1 500 c 1 652 2 732 f bunsen burner flame 900 1 600 c 1 652 2 912 f depending on the air valve open or close candle flame 1 100 c 2 012 f majority hot spots may be 1 300 1 400 c 2 372 2 552 f propane blowtorch 1 200 1 700 c 2 192 3 092 f backdraft flame peak 1 700 1 950 c 3 092 3 542 f magnesium 1 900 2 300 c 3 452 4 172 f hydrogen torch up to 2 000 c 3 632 f mapp gas 2 020 c 3 668 f acetylene blowlamp blowtorch up to 2 300 c 4 172 f oxyacetylene up to 3 300 c 5 972 f material burned max flame temperature in air diffusion flame 8 animal fat 800 900 c 1 472 1 652 f kerosene 990 c 1 814 f gasoline 1 026 c 1 878 8 f wood 1 027 c 1 880 6 f methanol 1 200 c 2 192 f charcoal forced draft 1 390 c 2 534 f highest temperature edit dicyanoacetylene a compound of carbon and nitrogen with chemical formula c 4 n 2 burns in oxygen with a bright blue white flame at a temperature of 5 260 k 4 990 c 9 010 f and at up to 6 000 k 5 730 c 10 340 f in ozone 11 this high flame temperature is partially due to the absence of hydrogen in the fuel dicyanoacetylene is not a hydrocarbon thus there is no water among the combustion products cyanogen with the formula cn 2 produces the second hottest known natural flame with a temperature of over 4 525 c 8 177 f when it burns in oxygen 12 13 cool flames edit main article cool flame at temperatures as low as 120 c 248 f fuel air mixtures can react chemically and produce very weak flames called cool flames the phenomenon was discovered by humphry davy in 1817 the process depends on a fine balance of temperature and concentration of the reacting mixture and if conditions are right it can initiate without any external ignition source cyclical variations in the balance of chemicals particularly of intermediate products in the reaction give oscillations in the flame with a typical temperature variation of about 100 c 212 f or between cool and full ignition sometimes the variation can lead to an explosion 10 14 in microgravity edit fire in space redirects here for the battlestar galactica episode see fire in space in zero g convection does not carry the hot combustion products away from the fuel source resulting in a spherical flame front in the year 2000 experiments by nasa confirmed that gravity plays an indirect role in flame formation and composition 15 the common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on convection as soot tends to rise to the top of a flame such as in a candle in normal gravity conditions making it yellow in microgravity or zero gravity environment such as in orbit natural convection no longer occurs and the flame becomes spherical with a tendency to become bluer and more efficient there are several possible explanations for this difference of which the most likely is the hypothesis that the temperature is sufficiently evenly distributed that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs 16 experiments by nasa reveal that diffusion flames in microgravity allow more soot to be completely oxidized after they are produced than do diffusion flames on earth because of a series of mechanisms that behave differently in microgravity when compared to normal gravity conditions 17 these discoveries have potential applications in applied science and private industry especially concerning fuel efficiency edge flame edit an edge flame or a triple flame refers to a stationary or moving flame edge in partially premixed reacting mixture the canonical edge flame has a tribriachial structure that comprises two premixed flames namely one fuel rich and one fuel lean and a trailing diffusion flame the theoretical development of triple flames was carried out by john w dold 18 joel daou and amable liñán 19 thermonuclear flames edit flames do not need to be driven only by chemical energy release in stars subsonic burning fronts driven by burning light nuclei like carbon or helium to heavy nuclei up to iron group propagate as flames this is important in some models of type ia supernovae in thermonuclear flames thermal conduction dominates over species diffusion so the flame speed and thickness is determined by the thermonuclear energy release and thermal conductivity often in the form of degenerate electrons 20 see also edit flame detector international flame research foundation olympic flame oxidizing and reducing flames the combustion institute notes edit if this process happens in an inert atmosphere without oxidizer it is called pyrolysis references edit definition of flame www merriam webster com 8 december 2025 retrieved 12 december 2025 law c k 2006 laminar premixed flames combustion physics cambridge england cambridge university press p 300 isbn 0 521 87052 6 do flames contain plasma science questions with surprising answers retrieved 26 june 2022 zheng shu ni li liu huawei zhou huaichun 1 april 2019 measurement of the distribution of temperature and emissivity of a candle flame using hyperspectral imaging technique optik 183 222 231 doi 10 1016 j ijleo 2019 02 077 issn 0030 4026 s2cid 126553613 archived at ghostarchive and the wayback machine what is fire youtube 3 august 2015 retrieved 27 november 2019 reaction of chlorine with hydrogen archived from the original on 20 august 2008 gregory p smith david m golden michael frenklach nigel w moriarty boris eiteneer mikhail goldenberg c thomas bowman ronald k hanson soonho song william c gardiner jr vitali v lissianski zhiwei qin gri mech 3 0 archived from the original on 29 october 2007 retrieved 8 november 2007 1 2 christopher w schmidt steve a symes 2008 the analysis of burned human remains academic press pp 2 4 isbn 978 0 12 372510 3 jozef jarosinski bernard veyssiere 2009 combustion phenomena selected mechanisms of flame formation propagation and extinction crc press p 172 isbn 978 0 8493 8408 0 1 2 pearlman howard chapek richard m 24 april 2000 cool flames and autoignition in microgravity nasa archived from the original on 1 may 2010 retrieved 13 may 2010 kirshenbaum a d a v grosse may 1956 the combustion of carbon subnitride nc 4 n and a chemical method for the production of continuous temperatures in the range of 5000 6000k journal of the american chemical society 78 9 2020 doi 10 1021 ja01590a075 thomas n gaydon a g brewer l 1952 cyanogen flames and the dissociation energy of n 2 the journal of chemical physics 20 3 369 374 bibcode 1952jchph 20 369t doi 10 1063 1 1700426 j b conway r h wilson jr a v grosse 1953 the temperature of the cyanogen oxygen flame journal of the american chemical society 75 2 499 bibcode 1953jachs 75 499c doi 10 1021 ja01098a517 jones john clifford september 2003 low temperature oxidation hydrocarbon process safety a text for students and professionals tulsa ok pennwell pp 32 33 isbn 978 1 59370 004 1 spiral flames in microgravity archived 19 march 2010 at the wayback machine national aeronautic...
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