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n as disposable 71 this view of women is perpetuated through the globalization of power hierarchies which matusek argues justifies and normalizes violence and power against women 71 this normalization of violence and power is a key player in the existence and continuation of sex trafficking 71 vesna nikovic ristanovic also cites this normalization of violence and power as a cause of sex trafficking 72 nikovic ristanovic analyzes the role of perceived femininity in women s vulnerability to sex trafficking by specifically looking at the links between militarism and female sexuality 72 nikovic ristanovic cites a connection between war rapes and forced prostitution and sex trafficking 72 the way women s bodies are used in war relate to the normalization of violence and power against women 72 nikovic ristanovic argues that military presence even in times of peace promote ideas of gender which render women vulnerable 72 these ideas concern hegemonic masculinity which nikovic ristanovic defines as the hyper sexuality of men and the submissiveness or passivity of women and girls 72 nikovic ristanovic notes that the global acceptance of this definition justifies exploitation and violence against women since women are viewed as sex objects for the fulfillment of male s sexual desire 72 this western ideal of heteronormative sexuality nikovic ristanovic argues is also perpetuated through media and advertisements in which women are encouraged to appear sexually attractive for men 72 kim anh duong argues that social narratives about women which arise from power hierarchies coupled with women s economic realities render women vulnerable to exploitation and sex trafficking 73 duong identifies the prevailing narrative of women as the disadvantaged victim 73 she cites powerlessness as the result of this narrative which is further perpetuated by social and economic realities which result from development process which leave women dependent on men 73 this overall powerlessness according to duong makes women easy targets of exploitation and violence 73 susan tiefenbrun like duong notes women s lower status of power and consequential dependence on men 74 tiefenbrun unlike duong cites cultural norms as the cause of this vulnerability 74 she argues that cultural norms deprive women of access to and time for receiving an education or learning skills to improve employment opportunities 74 this lack of education and access to employment results in women s dependence on men 74 tiefenbrun argues that women s dependence renders them more vulnerable to traffickers 74 another school of thought attributes women s migration for work in a context of strict immigration controls as the primary factor in women s vulnerability in becoming trafficked for sex there has been an increase in women migrating within and across borders duong cites a demand for women migrant workers which encourages migration 73 the globalization of neoliberalism has shifted the global economy s focus to export production duong notes that there is a demand for women in export production because employers are able to pay them the lowest wages 73 another reason for the demand of women workers is that there is a demand for care work 73 since care work is gendered as women s work duong argues that women are encouraged to migrate to fill this demand 73 janie chuang is one scholar who notes the strict border controls which leave women who migrate for work in informal labor sectors such as for care work with little opportunity for legal migration 75 chuang notes that women are thus more vulnerable to being taken advantage of by sex traffickers who provide opportunities for illegal migration 75 strict immigration laws are also cited by tiefenbrun as a key factor in individuals entering sex trafficking because women will agree to debt bondages and sex traffickers incentives to flee their social and economic realities 74 one cause for women s migration that is widely agreed upon by scholars is the economic pressure upon women due to neoliberal globalization siddharth kara argues that globalization and the spread of western capitalism drive inequality and rural poverty which are the material causes for sex trafficking 4 dong hoon seol points out unequal development between countries as an effect of the globalization of neoliberalism 76 he argues that the growing disparity of wealth between developed and underdeveloped countries leads to migration of women from underdeveloped countries 76 duong cites structural adjustment programs saps an aspect of development policies in the globalization of neoliberalism as a cause for women s poverty unemployment and low wages which promote migration 73 saps affect men and women differently she argues because men and women experience poverty differently 73 this is known as the feminization of poverty 73 much of women s time is spent doing unpaid labor such as housework and care work leading to an overall lower income 73 duong further argues that women are placed at a greater disadvantage due to their lack of access to land and other resources 73 matusek also argues that the unequal distribution of resources and power lead to both push and pull factors of migration 71 according to matusek women are pushed to migrate on account of a lack of education and employment opportunities 71 other scholars focus on the demand for sex itself as a cause of sex trafficking the pull factor comes from globalization creating a market around sex 71 matusek cites the commodification aspect of capitalism as the cause for the industrialization of sex 71 the pull factor comes from globalization creating a market around sex 71 seol also cites the globalization of the commodification aspect of capitalism as a cause of sex trafficking 76 profile of victims edit there is no single profile for victims of human trafficking most are women though it is not uncommon for males to be trafficked as well victims are captured then exploited all around the world representing a diverse range of ages and backgrounds including ethnic and socioeconomic however there is a set group of traits associated with a higher risk of becoming trafficked for sexual exploitation persons at risk include homeless and runaway youth foreign nationals especially those of lower socioeconomic status and those who have experienced physical emotional or sexual abuse violent trauma neglect poor academic success and inadequate social skills 3 77 also a study of a group of female sex workers in canada found that 64 percent of them had been in the child welfare system as children this includes foster and group homes 3 this research conducted by kendra nixon illustrates how children in or leaving foster care are at a higher risk of becoming a sex worker 3 in the united states research has illustrated how these qualities hold true for victims even though none can be labeled as a direct cause 14 for example more than 50 percent of domestic minor sex trafficking victims have a history of homelessness 14 familial disruptions such as divorce or the death of a parent place minors at a higher risk of entering the industry but home life in general influences children s risk in a study of trafficked youth in arizona 20 to 40 percent of female victims identified with experiencing abuse of some form sexual or physical at home before entering into the industry as a sex slave 14 of the males interviewed a smaller proportion 1 to 30 percent reported former abuse in the home 14 the main motive of a woman in some cases an underage girl to accept an offer from a trafficker is better financial opportunities for herself or her family a study on the origin countries of trafficking confirms that most trafficking victims are not the poorest in their countries of origin and sex trafficking victims are likely to be women from countries with some freedom to travel alone and some economic freedom 78 there are numerous fake businesses that sound realistic that convince people to apply for the job some places have a reputation for holding an illegal business to attract their victims 79 children are at risk because of their vulnerable characteristics naïve outlook size and tendency to be easily intimidated 3 the international labor organization estimates that of the 20 9 million people who are trafficked in the world for all types of work 5 5 million are children 80 in 2016 it was estimated that approximately one million children worldwide were victims of sex trafficking both boys and girls may be trafficked though girls are more frequently victims 23 of human trafficking victims identified by a united nations report were girls compared to 7 for boys female child trafficking victims are more likely to experience sexual exploitation 72 and 27 incidence rates for girls and boy respectively 81 in the u s children do not need to be forced into sexual exploitation according to the victims of trafficking and violence protection act of 2000 to be considered victims of sex trafficking under this act a child is defined as anyone under the age of 18 however the exploitation of children under the age of 14 carries a harsher punishment though this is rarely enforced the bureau of justice statistics states that there are 100 000 child victims of sex trafficking but only 150 child trafficking cases were brought to court in 2011 of these only 81 convictions were made many children who are trafficked are also at higher risk of turning to prostitution a crime that many of them face criminal charges for even under the age of 18 82 consequences to victims edit sex trafficked people face similar health consequences to women exploited for labor purposes people who have experienced domestic violence and migrant women 83 many of the sex workers contract sexually transmitted infections stis 14 in a study conducted by the london school of hygiene tropical medicine only one of 23 trafficked women interviewed felt well informed about sexually transmitted infections or hiv before leaving home 83 without knowledge about this aspect of their health trafficked women may not take the necessary preventive steps and contract these infections and have poor health seeking behavior in the future 83 the authors of helping survivors of human trafficking a systematic review of exit and postexit interventions state those who have survived human trafficking have experienced malnutrition and often come out with severe injuries resulting from the neglect and abuse that they ve endured dell et al 184 84 more than likely these were never addressed while they were held captive and will take serious intervention once they are rescued or released to heal in another systematic review done the studies reported a high prevalence of physical health problems among women who had been trafficked such as headache back pain stomach pain and memory problems oram et al 9 85 the mental health implications range from depression to anxiety to post traumatic stress disorder ptsd due to the abuse and violence victims face from their pimps or johns 14 for example authors le and perry in their systemic review of advancing the science on the biophysical effects of human trafficking discuss that throughout many studies done among sexual trafficking survivors mostly girls elevated burdens of anxiety depression and post traumatic stress disorder ptsd are revealed 175 86 of course this seems obvious considering that these women are enduring constant abuse and manipulation looking at just post traumatic stress disorder which is a mental disorder that may develop after exposure to exceptionally threatening or horrifying events it seems evident that these women would walk away with lasting mental health effects bisson et al 1 87 another study done through bmc public health revealed that there was a negative relationship between the how much girls and women were exposed to sea sexual exploitation and abuse and their social status gray et al 1 88 these girls were subjected to more public shame and isolation so even after the fact they continue to experience isolation which certainly isn t benefitting their mental health or healing citation needed with such a mindset many individuals develop alcohol or drug addictions and abusive habits 14 according to chon in supporting individuals at the intersection of human trafficking and substance use traffickers would use drugs to keep their victims chained to them 89 they would give them the drugs and then manage their withdrawal symptoms to the point where the victims needed them to live however chon also explains that even those who did not endure this type of abuse still reported using drugs and alcohol to cope with what they had gone through in understanding human trafficking in the united states the authors express that many victims are forced to commit illegal activities such as drug use and that because many of these victims are having their legal documentation withheld from them they can t do anything about it for fear of criminal prosecution logan et al 6 90 so they become stuck in a cycle forced into something they likely didn t want but now reliant on it many victims use these substances as a coping mechanism or escape which further promotes the rate of addiction in this population 3 in a 30 year longitudinal study conducted by j potterat et al it was determined that the average lifespan for women engaged in prostitution in colorado springs was 34 years 14 global impact edit africa edit sex trafficking of women and children is the second most common type of trafficking for export in africa 91 in ghana connection men or traffickers are witnessed regularly at border crossings and transport individuals via fake visas women are most commonly trafficked to belgium italy lebanon libya the netherlands nigeria and the united states 91 belgium the netherlands spain and the united states are also common destination countries for trafficked nigerian women 91 in uganda the lord s resistance army traffics individuals to sudan to sell them as sex slaves 91 the nigerian syndicates dominate sex trades in multiple territories the syndicates recruit women from south africa and send them to europe and asia where they are forced into prostitution drug smuggling or domestic violence law enforcement reported that sex traffickers force drug use to persuade these unwilling women 92 americas edit sex trafficking is a problem in north america central america and south america 93 people have been sex trafficked to and through mexico 94 95 96 97 98 99 it has been estimated that two thirds of trafficking victims in the united states are u s citizens most victims who are foreign born come into the u s legally on various visas state department estimated that between 15 000 and 50 000 women and girls are trafficked each year into the united states citation needed the girls educational and mentoring services gems an organization based in new york claims that the majority of girls in the sex trade were a...
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