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that it has become little more than a vehicle for activists wishing to promote certain causes and that it does not help the research community understand what security means or help decision makers to formulate good policies 3 4 alternatively other scholars have argued that the concept of human security should be broadened to encompass military security in other words if this thing called human security has the concept of the human embedded at the heart of it then let us address the question of the human condition directly thus understood human security would no longer be the vague amorphous add on to harder edged areas of security such as military security or state security 5 in order for human security to challenge global inequalities there has to be cooperation between a country s foreign policy and its approach to global health however the interest of the state has continued to overshadow the interest of the people for instance canada s foreign policy three ds has been criticized for emphasizing defense more than development 6 origins edit the emergence of the human security discourse was the product of a convergence of factors at the end of the cold war these challenged the dominance of the neorealist paradigm s focus on states mutually assured destruction and military security and briefly enabled a broader concept of security to emerge the increasingly rapid pace of globalization the failure of liberal state building through the instruments of the washington consensus the reduced threat of nuclear war between the superpowers and the exponential rise in the spread and consolidation of democratization and international human rights norms opened a space in which both development and concepts of security could be reconsidered at the same time the increasing number of internal violent conflicts in africa asia and europe balkans resulted in concepts of national and international security failing to reflect the challenges of the post cold war security environment whilst the failure of neoliberal development models to generate growth particularly in africa or to deal with the consequences of complex new threats such as hiv and climate change reinforced the sense that international institutions and states were not organized to address such problems in an integrated way the principal possible indicators of movement toward an individualized conception of security lie in the first place in the evolution of international society s consideration of rights of individuals in the face of potential threats from states the most obvious foci of analysis here are the un charter the un declaration of human rights 1948 and its associated covenants 1966 and conventions related to particular crimes e g genocide and the rights of particular groups e g women racial groups and refugees 7 concept edit undp s 1994 definition edit mahbub ul haq first drew global attention to the concept of human security in the united nations development programme s 1994 human development report and sought to influence the un s 1995 world summit on social development in copenhagen the undp s 1994 human development report s definition of human security argues that the scope of global security should be expanded to include threats in seven areas coloured world map indicating human development index as of 2008 update countries coloured green exhibit high human development those coloured yellow orange exhibit medium human development and those coloured red exhibit low human development the 2003 map economic security economic security requires an assured basic income for individuals usually from productive and remunerative work or as a last resort from a publicly financed safety net in this sense only about a quarter of the world s people are presently economically secure while the economic security problem may be more serious in developing countries concern also arises in developed countries as well unemployment problems constitute an important factor underlying political tensions and ethnic violence food security food security requires that all people at all times have both physical and economic access to basic food according to the united nations the overall availability of food is not a problem rather the problem often is the poor distribution of food and a lack of purchasing power in the past food security problems have been dealt with at both national and global levels however their impacts are limited according to the un the key is to tackle the problems relating to access to assets work and assured income related to economic security health security health security aims to guarantee a minimum protection from diseases and unhealthy lifestyles in developing countries the major causes of death traditionally were infectious and parasitic diseases whereas in industrialized countries the major killers were diseases of the circulatory system today lifestyle related chronic diseases are leading killers worldwide with 80 percent of deaths from chronic diseases occurring in low and middle income countries 8 according to the united nations in both developing and industrial countries threats to health security are usually greater for poor people in rural areas particularly children this is due to malnutrition and insufficient access to health services clean water and other basic necessities environmental security environmental security aims to protect people from the short and long term ravages of nature man made threats in nature and deterioration of the natural environment in developing countries lack of access to clean water resources is one of the greatest environmental threats in industrial countries one of the major threats is air pollution global warming caused by the emission of greenhouse gases is another environmental security issue personal security personal security aims to protect people from physical violence whether from the state or external states from violent individuals and sub state actors from domestic abuse or from predatory adults for many people the greatest source of anxiety is crime particularly violent crime community security community security aims to protect people from the loss of traditional relationships and values and from sectarian and ethnic violence traditional communities particularly minority ethnic groups are often threatened about half of the world s states have experienced some inter ethnic strife the united nations declared 1993 the year of indigenous people to highlight the continuing vulnerability of the 300 million aboriginal people in 70 countries as they face a widening spiral of violence political security political security is concerned with whether people live in a society that honors their basic human rights according to a survey conducted by amnesty international political repression systematic torture ill treatment or disappearance was still practised in 110 countries human rights violations are most frequent during periods of political unrest along with repressing individuals and groups governments may try to exercise control over ideas and information 9 since then human security has been receiving more attention from key global development institutions such as the world bank tadjbakhsh among others traces the evolution of human security in international organizations concluding that the concept has been manipulated and transformed considerably since 1994 to fit organizational interests 10 freedom from fear vs freedom from want and beyond edit in an ideal world each of the undp s seven categories of threats and perhaps others as a broader discussion might prioritize would receive adequate global attention and resources yet attempts to implement this human security agenda have led to the emergence of two major schools of thought on how to best practice human security freedom from fear and freedom from want while the undp 1994 report originally argued that human security requires attention to both freedom from fear and freedom from want divisions have gradually emerged over the proper scope of that protection e g over what threats individuals should be protected from and over the appropriate mechanisms for responding to these threats freedom from fear this school seeks to limit the practice of human security to protecting individuals from violent conflicts while recognizing that these violent threats are strongly associated with poverty lack of state capacity and other forms of inequities this approach argues that limiting the focus to violence is a realistic and manageable approach towards human security emergency assistance conflict prevention and resolution and peace building are the main concerns of this approach canada for example was a critical player in the efforts to ban landmines and has incorporated the freedom from fear agenda as a primary component in its own foreign policy however whether such a narrow approach can truly serve its purpose in guaranteeing more fruitful results remains to be an issue for instance the conflicts in darfur are often used in questioning the effectiveness of the responsibility to protect a key component of the freedom from fear agenda freedom from want the school advocates a holistic approach in achieving human security and argues that the threat agenda should be broadened to include hunger disease and natural disasters because they are inseparable concepts in addressing the root of human insecurity 2 and they kill far more people than war genocide and terrorism combined 11 different from freedom from fear it expands the focus beyond violence with emphasis on development and security goals despite their differences these two approaches to human security can be considered complementary rather than contradictory 11 expressions to this effect include franklin d roosevelt s famous four freedoms speech of 1941 in which freedom from want is characterized as the third and freedom from fear is the fourth such fundamental universal freedom the government of japan considers freedom from fear and freedom from want to be equal in developing japan s foreign policy moreover the undp 1994 called for the world s attention to both agendas surin pitsuwan the secretary general of asean in 2008 2012 cites theorists such as hobbes locke rousseau and hume to conclude that human security is the primary purpose of organizing a state in the beginning 12 he goes on to observe that the 1994 human development report states that it is reviving this concept and suggests that the authors of the 1994 hdr may be alluding to franklin roosevelt s four freedoms speech without literally citing that presentation although freedom from fear and freedom from want are the most commonly referred to categories of human security practice an increasing number of alternative ideas continue to emerge on how to best practice human security among them paul james 13 james asks two apparently simple questions firstly why if the human as a category by definition encompasses all considerations of governance the state and the military does military security continue to be treated as prior more significant or even equal to human security by contrast when children play category games he says they implicitly understand such issues of ordering secondly why does human security get narrowly defined in terms of liberal notions of freedom freedom from want and freedom from fear in response to these two questions he provides the following alternative definition with human security encompassing military security human security can be defined as one of the foundational conditions of being human including both 1 the sustainable protection and provision of the material conditions for meeting the embodied needs of people and 2 the protection of the variable existential conditions for maintaining a dignified life within this definition it then makes sense that the core focus of human security endeavours should be on the most vulnerable it makes sense that risk management should be most responsive to immediate events or processes that have both an extensive and intensive impact in producing material and existential vulnerabilities of people in general or a category of persons across a particular locale 13 87 g king and c murray 14 king and murray try to narrow down the human security definition to one s expectation of years of life without experiencing the state of generalized poverty in their definition the generalized poverty means falling below critical thresholds in any domain of well being and it is in the same article they give a brief review and categories of domains of well being this set of definitions is similar to freedom from want but more concretely focused on some value system caroline thomas 15 16 she regards human security as describing a condition of existence which entails basic material needs human dignity including meaningful participation in the life of the community and an active and substantive notion of democracy from the local to the global roland paris 4 he argues that many ways to define human security are related to a certain set of values and lose the neutral position so he suggests to take human security as a category of research as such he gives a 2 2 matrix to illustrate the security studies field security for whom what is the source of the security threat military military non military or both states national security conventional realist approach to security studies redefined security e g environmental and economic cooperative or comprehensive security societies groups and individuals intrastate security e g civil war ethnic conflict and democide human security e g environmental and economic threats to the survival of societies groups and individuals sabina alkire 17 different with those approaches seek to narrow down and specify the objective of human security sabina alkire pushes the idea a step further as to safeguard the vital core of all human lives from critical pervasive threats without impeding long term human fulfilment in a concept as such she suggests the vital core cover a minimal or basic or fundamental set of functions related to survival livelihood and dignity and all institutions should at least and necessarily protect the core from any intervention lyal s sunga 18 in 2009 professor sunga argued that a concept of human security that is fully informed by international human rights law international humanitarian law international criminal law and international refugee law and which takes into account the relevant international legal norms prohibiting the use of force in international relations will likely prove more valuable to international legal theory and practice over the longer term than a concept of human security which does not meet these conditions because these fields of law represent the objectified political will of states rather than the more subjective biases of scholars the first university textbook of human security edited by alexander lautensach and sabina lautensach 19 appear...
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