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17 18 air is vital for respiration in soil organisms and in plant growth 19 both wind and atmospheric pressure play critical roles in soil aeration 20 in addition convection and diffusion also influence the rates of soil aeration 19 temperature variations in soil are influenced by factors such as seasonality environmental conditions vegetation and soil composition 21 22 soil temperature also varies with depth upper soil layers are majorly influenced by air temperature while deeper soil layers experience less temperature fluctuation 23 24 soil temperature influences biological and biochemical processes in soil playing an important role in microbial and enzymatic activities mineralization and organic matter decomposition 25 soil fauna edit soil fauna is crucial to soil formation litter decomposition nutrient cycling biotic regulation and promotion of plant growth yet soil organisms remain underrepresented in studies on soil processes and existing modeling exercises this is a consequence of assuming that much below ground diversity is ecologically redundant and that soil food webs exhibit a higher degree of omnivory 1 however there is growing evidence on the strong influence of abiotic filters such as temperature moisture and soil ph as well as soil habitat characteristics in controlling their spatial and temporal patterns 26 soils are complex systems and their complexity resides in their heterogeneous nature they are a mixture of air water minerals organic compounds and living organisms the horizontal and vertical spatial variation of all these constituents is related to soil forming agents varying from micro to macro scales 27 consequently the horizontal patchy distribution of soil properties soil temperature moisture ph litter nutrient availability etc also drives the patchiness of the soil organisms across the landscape 28 and has been one of the main arguments for explaining the great diversity observed in soil communities 29 because soils also show vertical stratification of their elemental constituents along the soil profile as result of microclimate soil texture and resource quantity and quality differing between soil horizons soil communities also change in abundance and structure with soil depth 30 26 the majority of these organisms are aerobic so the amount of porous space pore size distribution surface area and oxygen levels are crucial to their life cycles and activities the smallest creatures microbes use the micropores filled with air to grow whereas other bigger animals require larger macropores or the water film surrounding the soil particles to move in search for food therefore soil textural properties together with water table depth are also important factors regulating their diversity population sizes and their vertical stratification ultimately the structure of the soil communities strongly depends on both natural soil forming factors and human activities agriculture forestry urbanization this helps determine the shape of landscapes in terms of healthy or contaminated pristine or degraded soils 26 macrofauna edit soil macrofauna climatic gradients and soil heterogeneity 26 historical factors such as climate and soil parent materials shape landscapes above and below ground but the regional local abiotic conditions constraint biological activities these operate at different spatial and temporal scales and can switch on and off different organisms at different microsites resulting in a hot moment in a particular hotspot 31 as a result trophic cascades can occur up and down the food web soil invertebrates are shown ellipses indicate hot red or cold spots blue with the curved arrows giving some examples of the factors that could switch on off a hot moment and the straight black arrows continuous black line on dashed off showing the implications for soil processes along the soil profile in the boxes the main ecosystem characteristics are listed since all these drivers of biodiversity changes also operate above ground it is thought that there must be some concordance of mechanisms regulating the spatial patterns and structure of both above and below ground communities 1 in support of this a small scale field study revealed that the relationships between environmental heterogeneity and species richness might be a general property of ecological communities 29 in contrast the molecular examination of 17 516 environmental 18s rrna gene sequences representing 20 phyla of soil animals covering a range of biomes and latitudes around the world indicated otherwise and the main conclusion from this study was that below ground animal diversity may be inversely related to above ground biodiversity 32 26 the lack of distinct latitudinal gradients in soil biodiversity contrasts with those clear global patterns observed for plants above ground and has led to the assumption that they are indeed controlled by different factors 33 in 2007 lozupone and knight found salinity was the major environmental determinant of bacterial diversity composition across the globe rather than extremes of temperature ph or other physical and chemical factors 30 in another global scale study in 2014 tedersoo et al concluded fungal richness is causally unrelated to plant diversity and is better explained by climatic factors followed by edaphic and spatial patterns 34 global patterns of the distribution of macroscopic organisms are far poorer documented however the little evidence available appears to indicate that at large scales soil metazoans respond to altitudinal latitudinal or area gradients in the same way as those described for above ground organisms 35 in contrast at local scales the great diversity of microhabitats commonly found in soils provides the required niche portioning to create hot spots of diversity in just a gram of soil 33 26 spatial patterns of soil biodiversity are difficult to explain and its potential linkages to many soil processes and the overall ecosystem functioning are debated for example while some studies have found that reductions in the abundance and presence of soil organisms results in the decline of multiple ecosystem functions 36 others concluded that above ground plant diversity alone is a better predictor of ecosystem multi functionality than soil biodiversity 37 soil organisms exhibit a wide array of feeding preferences life cycles and survival strategies and they interact within complex food webs 38 consequently species richness per se has very little influence on soil processes and functional dissimilarity can have stronger impacts on ecosystem functioning 39 therefore besides the difficulties in linking above and below ground diversities at different spatial scales gaining a better understanding of the biotic effects on ecosystem processes might require incorporating a great number of components together with several multi trophic levels 40 as well as the much less considered non trophic interactions such as phoresy passive consumption 41 in addition if soil systems are indeed self organized and soil organisms concentrate their activities within a selected set of discrete scales with some form of overall coordination 42 there is no need for looking for external factors controlling the assemblages of soil constituents instead we might just need to recognize the unexpected and that the linkages between above and below ground diversity and soil processes are difficult to predict 26 microfauna edit recent advances are emerging from studying sub organism level responses using environmental dna 43 various omics approaches such as metagenomics metatranscriptomics proteomics and proteogenomics are rapidly advancing at least for the microbial world 44 metaphenomics has been proposed recently as a better way to encompass the omics and the environmental constraints 45 26 soil microbes edit main article soil microbiology soil harbors many microbes bacteria archaea protist fungi and viruses 46 a majority of these microbes have not been cultured and remain undescribed 47 development of next generation sequencing technologies open up the avenue to investigate microbial diversity in soil 48 one feature of soil microbes is spatial separation which influences microbe to microbe interactions and ecosystem functioning in the soil habitat 49 microorganisms in soil are found to be concentrated in specific sites called hot spots which are characterized by an abundance of resources such as moisture or nutrients 50 examples include the rhizosphere and areas with accumulated organic matter such as the detritusphere 51 these areas are characterized by the presence of decaying root litter and exudates released from plant roots which regulates the availability of carbon and nitrogen and in consequence modulate microbial processes 51 apart from labile organic carbon spatial separation of microbes in soil may be influenced by other environmental factors such as temperature and moisture 52 other abiotic factors like ph and mineral nutrient composition may also influence the distribution of microorganisms in soil 53 variability of these factors make soil a dynamic system 54 interactions between members of the soil microhabitat take place via chemical signaling which is mediated by soluble metabolites and volatile organic compounds in addition to extracellular polysaccharides 55 chemical signals enable microbes to interact for example bacterial peptidoglycans stimulate growth of candida albicans 56 reciprocally c albicans production of farnesol modulates the expression of virulence genes and influences bacterial quorum sensing 57 trophic interactions by microbes in the same environment is driven by molecular communication 58 microbes may also exchange metabolites to support each other s growth e g the release of extracellular enzymes by ectomycorrhiza decomposes organic matter and release nutrients which then benefit other members of the population in exchange organic acids from bacteria stimulate fungal growth 59 these examples of trophic interactions especially metabolite dependencies drive species interactions and are important in the assembly of soil microbial communities 58 soil food web edit main article soil food web diverse organisms make up the soil food web they range in size from one celled bacteria algae fungi and protozoa to more complex nematodes and micro arthropods to the visible earthworms insects small vertebrates and plants as these organisms eat grow and move through the soil they make it possible to have clean water clean air healthy plants and moderated water flow there are many ways that the soil food web is an integral part of landscape processes soil organisms decompose organic compounds including manure plant residues and pesticides preventing them from entering water and becoming pollutants 31 they sequester nitrogen and other nutrients that might otherwise enter groundwater and they fix nitrogen from the atmosphere making it available to plants many organisms enhance soil aggregation and porosity thus increasing infiltration and reducing surface runoff soil organisms also prey on crop pests and are food for above ground animals research edit research interests span many aspects of soil ecology and microbiology fundamentally researchers are interested in understanding the interplay among microorganisms fauna and plants the biogeochemical processes they carry out and the physical environment in which their activities take place researchers apply this knowledge to address environmental problems notable scientific journals publishing current scientific research on soil ecology include applied soil ecology soil ecology letters and npj soil ecology current research in soil ecology is investigating the biogeochemistry and microbial ecology of septic drain field soils used to treat domestic wastewater the role of anecic earthworms in controlling the movement of water and nitrogen cycle in agricultural soils and the assessment of soil quality in turf production 60 as of 2006 one research topic of particular interest is understanding the roles and functions of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in natural ecosystems the effect of anthropic soil conditions on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and the production of glomalin by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are both of interest due to their roles in sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide see also edit anoxic microsites in soil references edit a b c d wardle d a 2002 communities and ecosystems linking the aboveground and belowground components a b r c c september 1941 factors of soil formation a system of quantitative pedology by hans jenny new york mcgraw hill book company inc xii 281 pages illus 3 50 agronomy journal 33 9 857 858 doi 10 2134 agronj1941 00021962003300090016x issn 0002 1962 a b tisdall j m 1995 formation of soil aggregates and accumulation of soil organic matter structure and organic matter storage in agricultural soils 1st ed boca raton crc press published 16 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