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0 vyavahāra edit main article vyavahāra vyavahāra व्यवहार literally means judicial procedure process practice conduct and behaviour 91 92 the due process honesty in testimony considering various sides was justified by dharmaśāstra authors as a form of vedic sacrifice failure of the due process was declared to be a sin 93 94 the vyavahara sections of dharma texts included chapters on duties of a king court system judges and witnesses judicial process crimes and penance or punishment 92 however the discussions and procedures in different dharmasutra and dharmaśāstra texts diverge significantly 92 some dharmaśāstra texts such as that attributed to brihaspati are almost entirely vyavahāra related texts these were probably composed in the common era around or after 5th century of 1st millennium 72 prāyaścitta edit main article prāyaścitta prāyaścitta प्रायश्चित्त literally means atonement expiation penance 95 96 prāyaścitta is asserted by the dharmasutra and dharmashastra texts as an alternative to incarceration and punishment 96 and a means of expiating bad conduct or sin such as adultery by a married person 97 thus in the apastambha text a willing sexual act between a male and female is subject to penance while rape is covered by harsher judicial punishments with a few texts such as manusmriti suggesting public punishments in extreme cases 96 those texts that discuss prāyaścitta states robert lingat debate the intent and thought behind the improper act and consider penance appropriate when the effect had to be balanced but cause was unclear 98 the roots of this theory are found in the brahmana layer of text in the samaveda 99 secondary works edit the dharmasutras and dharmasastras attracted secondary works called commentaries bhashya would typically interpret and explain the text of interest accept or reject the ideas along with reasons why 100 commentaries bhasya on dharmasastras dharmasastra author of commentary manusmriti bhāruci 600 1050 ce 101 medhātithi 820 1050 ce 102 govindarāja 11th century 103 kullūka 1200 1500 ce 103 narayana 14th century 103 nandana 103 raghavananda 103 ramacandra 103 yajnavalkya smriti visvarupa 750 1000 ce vijnanesvara 11th or 12th century most studied apararka 12th century sulapani 14th or 15th century mitramisra 17th century 104 105 narada smriti kalyanabhatta based on asahaya s work 104 105 parashara smriti vidyaranya nandapandita vishnu smriti nandapandita 104 another category of secondary literature derived from the dharmasutras and dharmasastras were the digests nibandhas sometimes spelled nibhandas these arose primarily because of the conflict and disagreements on a particular subject across the various dharma texts 106 these digests attempted to reconcile bridge or suggest a compromise guideline to the numerous disagreements in the primary texts however the digests in themselves disagreed with each other even on basic principles 107 geographically the medieval era digest writers came from many different parts of india such as assam bengal bihar gujarat kashmir karnataka maharashtra odisha tamil nadu and uttar pradesh 108 some important nibandha s are 109 caturvargacintāmaṇi of hemādri composed around a d 1260 1270 kṛtya kalpataru of lakṣmīdhara a minister of the king govindacandra of kanauj nirṇayasindhu of kamalākara bhaṭṭa hi composed around a d 1612 smṛticandrikā of devaṇṇabhaṭṭa a d 1150 1225 smṛtikaustubha of anantadeva grandson of eknāth composed around a d 1645 1695 smṛtiratnākara of caṇḍeśvara ṭhakkura composed around a d 1314 smṛtitattva or commonly referred to as astāviṃśati tattva of raghunandana vīramitrodaya of mitramiśra a d 1610 1640 dāyabhāga of jīmūtavāhana composed around a d 1100 vyavahāra mayūkha bhagavanta bhāskara of nīlakaṇṭha bhaṭṭa cousin of kamalākara bhaṭṭa 17th century smṛtisindhu and its summary tattvamuktāvalī dattaka mīmāṁsā of nandapaṇḍita a d 1580 1630 ṭoḍarānanda of rājā ṭoḍaramal composed around a d 1572 1589 sponsored by the mughal emperor akbar dharmasindhu of kāśīnātha upādhyāya composed around a d 1790 91 the nibandhakāra s discussed almost all aspects of society but specialised in certain topics compared to others topic specialisation of nibandhakāra s subject author of digests general lakṣmīdhara 1104 1154 ce 110 devaṇṇa bhaṭṭan 1200 ce pratāparuda deva 16th century 111 nīlakaṇṭha 1600 1650 112 dalpati 16th century kashinatha 1790 113 inheritance jīmūtavāhana raghunandana adoption nanda paṇḍita 16th 17th century 114 king s duties caṇḍeśvara ṭoḍar mal 16th century 115 judicial process caṇḍeśvara 14th century kamalākara bhatta 1612 nīlakaṇṭha 17th century 112 mitra miśra 17th century women jurists edit a few notable historic digests on dharmasastras were written by women 116 117 these include lakshmidevi s vivadachandra and mahadevi dhiramati s danavakyavali 116 lakshmidevi state west and bühler gives a latitudinarian views and widest interpretation to yajnavalkya smriti but her views were not widely adopted by male legal scholars of her time 117 the scholarly works of lakshmidevi were also published with the pen name balambhatta and are now considered classics in legal theories on inheritance and property rights particularly for women 118 dharma texts and the schools of hindu philosophy edit the mimamsa school of hindu philosophy developed textual hermeneutics theories on language and interpretation of dharma ideas which contributed to the dharmasutras and dharmasastras 119 the vedanga fields of grammar and linguistics vyakarana and nirukta were the other significant contributors to the dharma text genre 119 mimamsa literally means the desire to think states donald davis and in colloquial historical context how to think interpret things and the meaning of texts 119 in the early portions of the vedas the focus was largely on the rituals in the later portions largely on philosophical speculations and the spiritual liberation moksha of the individual 119 120 the dharma texts over time and each in its own way attempted to present their theories on rules and duties of individuals from the perspective of a society using the insights of hermeneutics and on language developed by mimamsa and vedanga 119 120 121 the nyaya school of hindu philosophy and its insights into the theories on logic and reason contributed to the development of and disagreements between the dharmasastra texts and the term nyaya came to mean justice 122 123 influence edit main article hindu law dharmaśāstras played an influential role in modern era colonial india history when they were used as the basis for the law of the land for all non muslims hindus jains buddhists sikhs 12 13 124 in 18th century the earliest british of the east india company acted as agents of the mughal emperor as the british colonial rule took over the political and administrative powers in india it was faced with various state responsibilities such as legislative and judiciary functions 125 the east india company and later the british crown sought profits for its british shareholders through trade as well as sought to maintain effective political control with minimal military engagement 126 the administration pursued a path of least resistance relying upon co opted local intermediaries that were mostly muslims and some hindus in various princely states 126 the british exercised power by avoiding interference and adapting to law practices as explained by the local intermediaries 125 126 127 the colonial policy on the system of personal laws for india for example was expressed by governor general hastings in 1772 as follows that in all suits regarding inheritance marriage caste and other religious usages or institutions the law of the koran with respect to mohamedans and those of the shaster dharmaśāstra with respect to gentoos shall be invariably be adhered to warren hastings august 15 1772 124 for muslims of british india the sharia or the religious law for muslims was easily available in al hidaya and fatawa al alamgir written under the sponsorship of aurangzeb but for non muslims followers of dharmic religions and others such as tribal people and parsis this information was not readily available 125 hence the british colonial officials extracted from the dharmaśāstra the legal code to apply on non muslims for the purposes of colonial administration 128 129 however the hindu laws as designed by the british was solely drawn upon from a single text manusmriti with the commentary of the bengali hindu scholar kulluka bhatta which was widely respected among bengali hindu intermediaries of the british living in the capital of calcutta later british era collections saw increasing importance of canonical texts over secondary sources prevalent customary law in a manner similar to the sola scriptura doctrine 130 the dharmashastra derived laws for non muslim indians were dissolved after india gained independence but indian muslim personal law shariat application act of 1937 continued to be the personal and family law for indian muslims 131 for non muslims a non religious uniform civil code was passed by indian parliament in the 1950s and amended by its elected governments thereafter which has since then applied to all non muslim indians 131 major english translations edit for beginners edit olivelle patrick 1999 dharmasūtras the law codes of āpastamba gautama baudhāyana and vāsiṣṭha new york oxford up olivelle patrick 2004 the law code of manu new york oxford up other major translations edit kane p v ed and trans 1933 kātyāyanasmṛti on vyavahāra law and procedure poona oriental book agency lariviere richard w 2003 the nāradasmṛti 2nd rev ed delhi motilal banarsidass rocher ludo 1956 vyavahāracintāmani a digest on hindu legal procedure gent early translations with full text online edit jha ganganath trans manusmṛti with the manubhāṣyya of medhātithi including additional notes 1920 bühler georg trans the laws of manu sbe vol 25 1886 bühler georg trans the sacred laws of the āryas sbe vol 2 1879 part 1 āpastamba and gautama bühler georg trans the sacred laws of the āryas sbe vol 14 1882 part 2 vāsiṣṭha and baudhāyana jolly julius trans the institutes of viṣṇu sbe vol 7 1880 jolly julius trans the minor law books sbe vol 33 oxford 1889 contains both bṛhaspatismṛti and nāradasmṛti see also edit dhammasattha tirukkural notes edit pandurang vaman kane mentions over 100 different dharmaśāstra texts which were known by the middle ages in india but most of these are lost to history and their existence is inferred from quotes and citations in bhasya and digests that have survived 1 baudhayana in verses 1 1 5 6 provides a complete definition of śiṣṭa as now śiṣṭa are those who are free from envy and pride who possess just a jarful of grain who are without greed and who are free from hypocrisy arrogance greed folly and anger 50 numerous dharmasastras are known but most are lost to history and only known from them being mentioned or quoted in other surviving texts for example dharmasastras by atri harita ushanas angiras yama apastamba samvartha katyayana brihaspati parasara vyasa sankha likhita daksha gautama satatapa vasistha prachetas budha devala sumantu jamadgni visvamitra prajapati paithinasi pitamaha jabala chhagaleya chyavana marichi kasyapa gobhila risyasrimaga and others 68 69 references edit kane p v history of the dharmaśāstras vol 1 p 304 james lochtefeld 2002 dharma shastras in the illustrated encyclopedia of hinduism vol 1 a m rosen publishing isbn 0 8239 2287 1 pages 191 192 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxiii xxv 1 2 robert lingat 1973 p 73 patrick olivelle 2006 pp 173 175 176 183 patrick olivelle manu s code of law a critical edition and translation of the mānava dharmaśāstra new york oxford up 2005 64 ludo rocher hindu law and religion where to draw the line in malik ram felicitation volume ed s a j zaidi new delhi 1972 pp 167 194 and richard w lariviere law and religion in india in law morality and religion global perspectives ed alan watson berkeley university of california press pp 75 94 patrick olivelle 2005 manu s code of law oxford university press isbn 978 0195171464 pages 31 32 81 82 154 166 208 214 353 354 356 382 donald davis 2010 the spirit of hindu law cambridge university press isbn 978 0521877046 page 13 16 166 179 kedar nath tiwari 1998 classical indian ethical thought motilal banarsidass pp 88 95 isbn 978 81 208 1607 7 rocher ludo july september 1972 indian response to anglo hindu law journal of the american oriental society 92 3 419 424 doi 10 2307 600567 jstor 600567 1 2 derrett j duncan m november 1961 the administration of hindu law by the british comparative studies in society and history 4 1 cambridge university press 10 52 doi 10 1017 s0010417500001213 jstor 177940 s2cid 144344249 1 2 werner menski 2003 hindu law beyond tradition and modernity oxford university press isbn 978 0 19 569921 0 chapter 1 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxii 1 2 3 4 5 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxiii 1 2 robert lingat 1973 pp 7 8 robert lingat 1973 p 12 rajendra prasad 2009 a historical developmental study of classical indian philosophy of morals concept p 147 isbn 978 81 8069 595 7 1 2 3 4 5 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxiv xxv 1 2 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxiii xxv robert lingat 1973 pp 19 22 quote the dharma sutra of apastamba suggests that a rich literature on dharma already existed he cites ten authors by name patrick olivelle 2006 pp 178 see note 29 for a list of 17 cited ancient scholars in different dharmasutras patrick olivelle 2006 p 178 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxiv 1 2 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxiv 1 2 3 4 5 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxv 1 2 3 robert lingat 1973 p 18 1 2 3 patrick olivelle 2006 p 185 1 2 robert lingat 1973 p 19 1 2 robert lingat 1973 pp 19 20 patrick olivelle 2006 p 46 1 2 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxvi patrick olivelle 1999 p 325 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxxi patrick olivelle 2006 p 178 with note 28 1 2 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxvii 1 2 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxviii 1 2 3 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxxiv 1 2 3 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxxv 1 2 3 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxxvi 1 2 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxxvii patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxxviii xxxix patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxxviii xxxix 27 28 1 2 3 4 5 6 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xxxix 1 2 3 4 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xl 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xli patrick olivelle 2006 pp 180 robert lingat 1973 p 69 patrick olivelle 1999 pp 100 101 patrick olivelle 2006 p 181 patrick olivelle 1999 pp xlii 1 2 patrick olivelle 1999 pp x1ii robert lingat 1973 pp 73 77 1 2 patrick olivelle 2006 pp 169 170 1 2 3 4 timothy lubin donald r davis jr jayanth k krishnan 2010 p 57 patrick olivelle 2005 manu s code of law oxford university press isbn 978 0195171464 pages 24 25 flood 1996 p 56 patrick olivelle 2005 steven collins 1993 the discourse of what is primary journal of indian philosophy volume 21 pages 301 393 patrick olivelle 2005 pp 3 4 robert lingat 1973 p 77 lingat 1973 98 timothy lubin donald r davis jr jayanth k krishnan 2010 pp 59 72 robert...
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