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the same tree one of the twain eats the sweet fig the other not eating keeps watch where those fine birds hymn ceaselessly their portion of life eternal and the sacred synods there is the universe s mighty keeper who wise hath entered into me the simple the tree on which the fine birds eat the sweetness where they all rest and procreate their offspring upon its top they say the fig is sweetest he who does not know the father will not reach it rigveda 1 164 20 1 164 22 106 the emphasis of duality between existence sat and non existence asat in the nasadiya sukta of the rigveda is similar to the vyakta avyakta manifest unmanifest polarity in samkhya the hymns about puruṣa may also have had some influence on samkhya 113 the samkhya notion of buddhi or mahat is similar to the notion of hiranyagarbha which appears in both the rigveda and the shvetashvatara upanishad 114 early upanishads edit higher than the senses stand the objects of senses higher than objects of senses stands mind higher than mind stands intellect higher than intellect stands the great self higher than the great self stands avyaktam unmenifested or indistinctive higher than avyaktam stands purusha higher than this there is nothing he is the final goal and the highest point in all beings dwells this purusha as atman essence invisible concealed he is only seen by the keenest thought by the sublest of those thinkers who see into the subtle katha upanishad 3 10 13 115 116 the oldest of the major upanishads c 900 600 bce contain speculations along the lines of classical samkhya philosophy 87 the concept of ahamkara was traced back by van buitenen to chapters 1 2 and 1 4 of the brihadaranyaka upanishad and chapter 7 25 of the chāndogya upaniṣad where it is a cosmic entity and not a psychological notion 87 114 satkaryavada the theory of causation in samkhya may in part be traced to the verses in sixth chapter which emphasize the primacy of sat being and describe creation from it the idea that the three gunas or attributes influence creation is found in both chandogya and shvetashvatara upanishads 117 yajnavalkya s exposition on the self in the brihadaranyaka upanishad and the dialogue between uddalaka aruni and his son svetaketu in the chandogya upanishad represent a more developed notion of the essence of man atman as pure subjectivity i e the knower who is himself unknowable the seer who cannot be seen and as pure conscious discovered by means of speculations or enumerations 118 according to larson it seems quite likely that both the monistic trends in indian thought and the dualistic samkhya could have developed out of these ancient speculations 119 according to larson the enumeration of tattvas in samkhya is also found in taittiriya upanishad aitareya upanishad and yajnavalkya maitri dialogue in the brihadaranyaka upanishad 120 proto classical samkhya edit buddhist and jainist influences edit jainism was reorganised in the 9th century bce while buddhism had developed in eastern india by the 5th century bce it is probable that these schools of thought and the earliest schools of samkhya influenced each other 121 according to burely there is no evidence that a systematic samkhya philosophy existed prior to the founding of buddhism and jainism sometime in the 5th or 4th century bce 122 a prominent similarity between buddhism and samkhya is the greater emphasis on suffering dukkha as the foundation for their respective soteriological theories than other indian philosophies 121 however suffering appears central to samkhya in its later literature which likely suggests a buddhist influence eliade however presents the alternate theory that samkhya and buddhism developed their soteriological theories over time benefiting from their mutual influence 121 likewise the jain doctrine of plurality of individual souls jiva may have influenced the samkhya concept of multiple purușas however hermann jacobi an indologist argued that there is little reason to assume that samkhya notion of purușas was solely dependent on the notion of jiva in jainism it is more likely that samkhya was influenced by many ancient theories of soul in various vedic and non vedic schools 121 this declared to you is the yoga of the wisdom of samkhya hear now of the integrated wisdom with which partha you will cast off the bonds of karma bhagavad gita 2 39 123 larson bhattacharya and potter state it to be likely that early samkhya doctrines found in oldest upanishads c 700 800 bce provided the contextual foundations and influenced buddhist and jaina doctrines and these became contemporaneous sibling intellectual movements with samkhya and other schools of hindu philosophy 124 this is evidenced for example by the references to samkhya in ancient and medieval era jaina literature 125 middle upanishads edit samkhya and yoga are mentioned together for first time in chapter 6 13 of the shvetashvatra upanishad 126 as samkhya yoga adhigamya literally to be understood by proper reasoning and spiritual discipline 127 the katha upanishad 5th 1st c bce in verses 3 10 13 and 6 7 11 describes a concept of puruṣa and other concepts also found in later samkhya 128 the shvetashvatara upanishad in chapter 6 13 describes samkhya with yoga philosophy and bhagavad gita in book 2 provides axiological implications of samkhya therewith providing textual evidence of samkhyan terminology and concepts 126 katha upanishad conceives the puruṣa cosmic spirit consciousness as same as the individual soul ātman self 128 129 bhagavad gita and mahabharata edit the bhagavad gita identifies samkhya with understanding or knowledge 130 the three gunas are also mentioned in the gita though they are not used in the same sense as in classical samkhya 131 the gita integrates samkhya thought with the devotion bhakti of theistic schools and the impersonal brahman of vedanta 132 the mokshadharma chapter of shanti parva book of peace in the mahabharata epic composed between 400 bce to 400 ce explains samkhya ideas along with other extant philosophies and then lists numerous scholars in recognition of their philosophical contributions to various indian traditions and therein at least three samkhya scholars can be recognized kapila asuri and pancasikha 133 134 the 12th chapter of the buddhacarita a buddhist text composed in the early second century ce 135 suggests samkhya philosophical tools of reliable reasoning were well formed by about the 5th century bce 133 according to rusza the ancient buddhist aśvaghoṣa in his buddha carita describes āḷāra kālāma the teacher of the young buddha ca 420 b c e as following an archaic form of sāṅkhya 95 classical samkhya edit according to ruzsa about 2 000 years ago sāṅkhya became the representative philosophy of hindu thought in hindu circles 95 influencing all strands of the hindu tradition and hindu texts 95 traditional credited founders edit sage kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the samkhya school 136 it is unclear in which century of the 1st millennium bce kapila lived 137 kapila appears in rigveda but context suggests that the word means reddish brown color both kapila as a seer and the term samkhya appear in hymns of section 5 2 in shvetashvatara upanishad c 300 bce suggesting kapila s and samkhya philosophy s origins may predate it numerous other ancient indian texts mention kapila for example baudhayana grhyasutra in chapter iv 16 1 describes a system of rules for ascetic life credited to kapila called kapila sannyasa vidha 137 a 6th century ce chinese translation and other texts consistently note kapila as an ascetic and the founder of the school mention asuri as the inheritor of the teaching and a much later scholar named pancasikha 138 as the scholar who systematized it and then helped widely disseminate its ideas 139 isvarakrsna is identified in these texts as the one who summarized and simplified samkhya theories of pancasikha many centuries later roughly 4th or 5th century ce in the form that was then translated into chinese by paramartha in the 6th century ce 137 samkhyakarika edit main article samkhyakarika the earliest surviving authoritative text on classical samkhya philosophy is the samkhya karika c 200 ce 140 or 350 450 ce 132 of īśvarakṛṣṇa 132 there were probably other texts in early centuries ce however none of them are available today 141 iśvarakṛṣṇa in his kārikā describes a succession of the disciples from kapila through āsuri and pañcaśikha to himself the text also refers to an earlier work of samkhya philosophy called ṣaṣṭitantra science of sixty topics which is now lost 132 the text was imported and translated into chinese about the middle of the 6th century ce 142 the records of al biruni the persian visitor to india in the early 11th century suggests samkhyakarika was an established and definitive text in india in his times 143 samkhyakarika includes distilled statements on epistemology metaphysics and soteriology of the samkhya school for example the fourth to sixth verses of the text states it epistemic premises 144 perception inference and right affirmation are admitted to be threefold proof for they are by all acknowledged and comprise every mode of demonstration it is from proof that belief of that which is to be proven results perception is ascertainment of particular objects inference which is of three sorts premises an argument and deduces that which is argued by it right affirmation is true revelation apta vacana and sruti testimony of reliable source and the vedas sensible objects become known by perception but it is by inference or reasoning that acquaintance with things transcending the senses is obtained a truth which is neither to be directly perceived nor to be inferred from reasoning is deduced from apta vacana and sruti samkhya karika verse 4 6 144 the most popular commentary on the samkhyakarika was the gauḍapāda bhāṣya attributed to gauḍapāda the proponent of advaita vedanta school of philosophy other important commentaries on the karika were yuktidīpīka c 6th century ce and vācaspati s sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī c 10th century ce 145 yuktidipika edit between 1938 and 1967 two previously unknown manuscript editions of yuktidipika ca 600 700 ce were discovered and published 146 yuktidipika is an ancient review by an unknown author and has emerged as the most important commentary on the samkhyakarika itself an ancient key text of the samkhya school 147 88 this commentary as well as the reconstruction of pre karika epistemology and samkhya emanation text containing cosmology ontology from the earliest puranas and mokshadharma suggest that samkhya as a technical philosophical system existed from about the last century bce to the early centuries of the common era yuktidipika suggests that many more ancient scholars contributed to the origins of samkhya in ancient india than were previously known and that samkhya was a polemical philosophical system however almost nothing is preserved from the centuries when these ancient samkhya scholars lived 146 samkhya revival edit the 13th century text sarvadarsanasangraha contains 16 chapters each devoted to a separate school of indian philosophy the 13th chapter in this book contains a description of the samkhya philosophy 148 the sāṁkhyapravacana sūtra c 14th century ce renewed interest in samkhya in the medieval era it is considered the second most important work of samkhya after the karika 149 commentaries on this text were written by anirruddha sāṁkhyasūtravṛtti c 15th century ce vijñānabhikṣu sāṁkhyapravacanabhāṣya c 16th century ce mahādeva vṛttisāra c 17th century ce and nāgeśa laghusāṁkhyasūtravṛtti 150 in his introduction the commentator vijnana bhiksu stated that only a sixteenth part of the original samkhya sastra remained and that the rest had been lost to time 151 while the commentary itself is no doubt medieval the age of the underlying sutras is unknown and perhaps much older according to surendranath dasgupta scholar of indian philosophy charaka samhita an ancient indian medical treatise also contains thoughts from an early samkhya school 152 views on god edit part of a series on atheism concepts antitheism implicit and explicit atheism materialism naturalism negative and positive atheism history history of atheism atheism during the age of enlightenment new atheism society atheist feminism criticism of religion demographics of atheism discrimination against atheists secular ethics secularism separation of church and state state atheism arguments arguments for atheism atheist s wager creator of god evil god challenge fate of the unlearned free will god of the gaps hitchens s razor incompatible properties inconsistent revelation nonbelief occam s razor omnipotence paradox parody religion poor design problem of evil problem of hell russell s teapot theological noncognitivism people list of atheists julian baggini mikhail bakunin simone de beauvoir mario bunge albert camus richard dawkins daniel dennett denis diderot ludwig feuerbach emma goldman a c grayling sam harris stephen hawking christopher hitchens baron d holbach lawrence krauss paul kurtz j l schellenberg derek parfit michael lou martin ayn rand karl marx jean meslier friedrich nietzsche michel onfray pierre joseph proudhon william l rowe graham oppy bertrand russell peter singer victor j stenger books atheism the case against god breaking the spell de rerum natura the end of faith the essence of christianity god and the state the god delusion god is not great the system of nature related stances irreligion agnosticism freethought secular humanism atheism and religion criticism of atheism nontheistic religion secular spirituality outline category philosophy portal wikiproject v t e burley and gopal suggest distinguishing between theistic and non theistic streams of samkhya traditions as seśvara with lord and nirīśvara without lord respectively 139 153 burley suggests that the svetasvatara upanishad is a paradigmatic example of seśvara samkhya whereas the samkhyakarika is a paradigmatic example of nirīśvara samkhya 139 daniel sheridan suggests that a theistic form of samkhya older than the classical system is found in the upanishads this form is also present in the vaisnava puranas 154 the oldest commentary on the samkhyakarika the yuktidīpikā asserts the existence of god stating we do not completely reject the particular power of the lord since he assumes a majestic body and so forth our intended meaning is just that there is no being who is different from prakrti and purusa and who is the instigator of these two as you claim therefore your view is refuted the conjunction between prakrti and purusa is not instigated by another being 29 chandradhar sharma in 1960 affirmed that samkhya in the beginning was based on the theistic absolute of upanishads but later on under the influence of jaina and buddhist thought it rejected theistic monism and was content with spiritualistic pluralism and atheistic realism this also 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