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lent infinite universe where existence was no longer a reflection of divine values but merely a neutral fact of mathematics the science historian alexandre koyré memorably described this unintended outcome of the scientific revolution the stripping of hierarchical order purpose and meaning from the universe as the utter devalorization of being 144 in his pensees published in 1670 after his death but which the author had intended to be titled apologie de la religion chrétienne defence of the christian religion before he died the mathematician philosopher and catholic writer blaise pascal wrote that the eternal silence of these infinite spaces frightens me 145 understanding without belief edit further information relationship between science and religion independence and fact value distinction religion and science the upheaval of the scientific revolution extended beyond a specific problem of cosmology to a broader epistemological challenge that decisively overthrew the medieval view of natural philosophy as the servant or handmaiden of theology 12 galileo kepler and others argued that the book of nature was separate from the book of scripture and that only the latter was designed to tell humans how to go to heaven 146 francis bacon went even farther to warn his 17th century contemporaries against the corruption of philosophy by superstition and an admixture of theology and the unwholesome mixture of things human and divine which was liable to produce not only fantastic philosophy but also heretical religion too 147 bacon urged natural philosophers to give to faith that only which is faith s 148 while the era s scientists were almost always highly devout as individuals 149 their day to day practices as scientists increasingly followed a mechanistic logic 150 that left no room for any mixing of the measurable with the miraculous as natural philosophy continued to grow in power self confidence and independence during the 17th century the intellectual attitude of educated people shifted from fides quaerens intellectum toward a mode of understanding increasingly detached from religion let us take for a moment a typical well educated european in 1600 he believes in witchcraft he believes circe really did turn odysseus s crew into pigs he believes mice are spontaneously generated in piles of straw he believes that nature abhors a vacuum he believes the rainbow is a sign from god and that comets portend evil he believes of course that the earth stands still and the sun and stars turn around the earth once every twenty four hours but now let us jump far ahead to 1733 he does not know anyone or at least not anyone educated and reasonably sophisticated who believes in witches magic alchemy or astrology he thinks the odyssey is fiction not fact he knows that the rainbow is produced by refracted light and that comets have no significance for our lives on earth he believes that the future cannot be predicted he knows that the heart is a pump he believes that science is going to transform the world and that the moderns have outstripped the ancients in every possible respect he has trouble believing in miracles even the ones in the bible between 1600 and 1733 the intellectual world of the educated elite changed more rapidly than at any time in previous history the only name we have for this great transformation is the scientific revolution 151 observational astronomy edit main articles vatican observatory and vatican advanced technology telescope between 1650 and 1750 four observatories run by the catholic church were among the best solar observatories in the world built largely to fix an unquestionable date for easter they also housed instruments that threw light on the disputed geometry of the solar system 152 vatican observatory in 1789 the vatican observatory specola vaticana an astronomical research and educational institution supported by the holy see opened it was moved to castel gandolfo the summer residence of the pope in the 1930s the vatican advanced technology telescope at the mount graham international observatory began operation in arizona usa in 1995 153 many distinguished scholars have worked at the observatory in 2008 the templeton prize was awarded to cosmologist fr michał heller a vatican observatory adjunct scholar in 2010 the george van biesbroeck prize was awarded to former observatory director fr george coyne sj 154 in 2014 the director of the observatory brother guy consolmagno sj was awarded the american astronomical society s carl sagan medal for excellence in public communication in planetary science perhaps one of the greatest contributions made by the jesuits to science is the large network of observatories they founded across the world jesuits devised modern lunar nomenclature and stellar classification and some 35 craters of the moon are named after jesuits historian jonathan wright writes that jesuits observed in some cases before anyone else the colored bands on jupiter s surface the andromeda nebula and saturn s rings 155 between 1824 and 1957 75 observatories were founded by the jesuits in some countries in asia and africa these observatories were the first scientific institutions they had ever had 156 conflict independence dialogue or integration edit main articles conflict thesis relationship between science and religion perspectives and non overlapping magisteria in the 19th century the scientist historian john william draper and diplomat politician and historian andrew dickson white were the most influential exponents of the conflict thesis between the catholic church and science in the early 1870s draper was invited to write a history of the conflict between religion and science 1874 a book replying to contemporary papal edicts such as the doctrine of infallibility and mostly criticizing the anti intellectualism of roman catholicism 157 yet he assessed that islam and protestantism had little conflict with science draper s preface summarises the conflict thesis the history of science is not a mere record of isolated discoveries it is a narrative of the conflict of two contending powers the expansive force of the human intellect on one side and the compression arising from traditionary faith and human interests on the other 158 in 1896 white published a history of the warfare of science with theology in christendom the culmination of thirty years of research and publication on the subject in the introduction white emphasized he arrived at his position after the difficulties of assisting ezra cornell in establishing a university without any official religious affiliation the conflict thesis has little support among contemporary science historians 159 160 161 later uses of the term may instead refer to more subtle and or episodic conflicts including disagreements over the demarcations between science and religion struggles for influence over government policy confrontations over new technologies or clashes over particular scientific discoveries that appear to challenge the authority and power of religious institutions the historian and philosopher of science thomas kuhn for example observes that modern science s claim to authority over cosmology creates a built in friction with all religious cosmologies 162 an example of this sort of criticism is that the church opposes particular scientific discoveries that it feels challenges its authority and power these softer versions of conflict theory shift the emphasis away from a crude assertion of a fundamental incompatibility of religion per se and science in general to a critique of the structural reasons for the resistance of the church as a political organization 163 in religion in an age of science the physicist and philosopher ian barbour writes that while the conflict model can be a reasonable lens to describe the most visible and obvious clashes involving extremist positions of scientific materialism and biblical literalism there are other kinds of interactions between science and religion that are better described in terms of dialogue or integration barbour also describes a fourth independence mode 164 in science and religion some historical perspectives the science historian john hedley brooke notes that a strategy that successfully harmonized religion and science in one era at least for some broke down in a later era the diversification of the sciences and the theoretical changes within them make it extremely difficult to locate a unique set of principles by which harmony with religion could be guaranteed among the physical scientists of the seventeenth century it was achieved by stressing the harmony of the universe itself a divinely conceived harmony expressible in mathematical terms and which copernicus had declared it was the duty of the astronomer to display by the nineteenth century however and especially in the life sciences the metaphysics that had underpinned the work of copernicus kepler and newton had become obstructive a metaphysics stressing the invariance of divine ideas created dissonance where it had once created harmony 165 catholic architects of modern geology astrophysics genetics and cosmology edit further information list of catholic clergy scientists while the scientific revolution effectively untethered natural philosophy from religion the church did not adopt a reflexively hostile attitude toward the accelerating research invention and discoveries of an increasingly self confident science the careers of four clergy scientists each of whom made foundational contributions to modern science illustrate the church s continued interest in and engagement with modern efforts to read the book of nature geology edit blessed nicolas steno known for law of superposition principle of original horizontality principle of lateral continuity principle of cross cutting relationships law of constancy of interfacial angles scientific career fields geology crystallography orders ordination 13 april 1675 consecration 19 september 1677 sainthood beatified 23 october 1988 main articles nicolas steno scientific contributions and stratigraphy historical development in october 1666 fishermen caught a huge shark near the town of livorno ferdinando ii de medici grand duke of tuscany ordered its head to be sent to nicolas steno a danish anatomist who had moved to italy steno noted that the shark s teeth bore a striking resemblance to objects found embedded within rock formations that his contemporaries called glossopetrae or tongue stones ancient authorities such as the roman author pliny the elder in his naturalis historia had suggested that these stones fell from the sky or from the moon 166 fabio colonna however had already shown by burning the material that glossopetrae were actually organic matter limestone rather than soil minerals 167 168 169 building on colonna s work by using the contemporary corpuscular theory of matter steno argued that the chemical composition of fossils could be altered without changing their form steno s work on shark teeth led him to the question of how any solid object could come to be found inside another solid object such as a rock or a layer of rock the solid bodies within solids that attracted steensen s interest included not only fossils as we would define them today but minerals crystals encrustations veins and even entire rock layers or strata his seminal 1669 work de solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus introduced the fundamental principles of stratigraphy that remain the bedrock of modern geological surveying 170 and make steno one of the founders of modern geology the law of superposition the principle of original horizontality the principle of lateral continuity and the principle of cross cutting relationships were all originally proposed by steno originally a lutheran steno moved to catholic italy and in 1667 converted denied office in the protestant north he continued his geological studies but in 1675 became a priest and soon after was appointed a bishop writing 16 major theological works 171 astrophysics edit the reverend father angelo secchi known for stellar classification secchi classes scientific career fields astrophysics ecclesiastical career ordained 12 september 1847 further information stellar classification history a new astronomy soon to be called astrophysics began to emerge when william hyde wollaston and joseph von fraunhofer independently discovered that when decomposing the light from the sun a multitude of dark lines regions where there was less or no light were observed in the spectrum 172 by 1860 the physicist gustav kirchhoff and the chemist robert bunsen had demonstrated that the dark lines in the solar spectrum corresponded to bright lines in the spectra of known gases specific lines corresponding to unique chemical elements 173 kirchhoff deduced that the dark lines in the solar spectrum are caused by absorption by chemical elements in the solar atmosphere 174 in this way it was proved that the chemical elements found in the sun and stars were also found on earth starting in 1863 and using instruments of his own invention including the heliospectrograph star spectrograph and telespectroscope fr angelo secchi an italian catholic priest and director of the observatory at the pontifical gregorian university then called the roman college began collecting the spectra of stars accumulating some 4 000 stellar spectrograms through analysis of this data he discovered that the stars come in a limited number of distinct types and subtypes which could be distinguished by their different spectral patterns 175 from this concept he developed the first system of stellar classification the five secchi classes while his system was superseded by the harvard system he still stands as discoverer of the principle of stellar classification which is a fundamental element of astrophysics his recognition of molecular bands of carbon radicals in the spectra of some stars made him the discoverer of carbon stars which made one of his spectral classes he also demonstrated that certain absorption lines in the spectrum of the sun were caused by absorption in the earth s atmosphere genetics edit the right reverend gregor mendel known for founder of the modern science of genetics scientific career fields genetics ecclesiastical career ordained 25 december 1846 176 main article history of genetics gregor mendel was an austrian scientist and augustinian friar who began experimenting with peas around 1856 observing the processes of pollination at his monastery in what is now the czech republic mendel studied and developed theories about the field of science now called genetics mendel published his results in 1866 in the journal of the brno natural history society the paper was not widely read nor understood and soon after its publication mendel was elected abbot of his monastery he continued experimenting with bees but his work went unrecognized until various scientists resurrected ...
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