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prove electron transfer between enzymes and electrodes 55 the integration of nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and metal nanoparticles are used to enhance the performance of bfcs these materials increase the surface area of electrodes and facilitate better electron transfer resulting in higher power densities three dimensional porous structures and graphene based materials have been used to improve conductivity and stability and hybrid biofuel cells that combine bfcs with supercapacitors or secondary batteries are being developed to provide stable and continuous energy output 56 bfcs are being explored as power sources for implantable devices like pacemakers and biosensors to potentially eliminate the need for traditional batteries and fiber type ebfcs show potential in implantable applications 57 the power density of bfcs however is generally lower than that of conventional energy sources the stability of enzymes and microorganisms over extended periods is another concern and scalability and commercial viability also pose hurdles 58 comparison of fuel cell types edit fuel cell name electrolyte qualified power w working temperature c efficiency status cost usd w cell system electro galvanic fuel cell aqueous alkaline solution 40 commercial research 3 7 direct formic acid fuel cell dfafc polymer membrane ionomer 50 w 40 commercial research 10 20 alkaline fuel cell aqueous alkaline solution 10 200 kw 80 60 70 62 commercial research 50 100 proton exchange membrane fuel cell polymer membrane ionomer 1 w 500 kw 50 100 nafion 59 120 200 pbi 60 50 70 30 50 61 commercial research 50 100 metal hydride fuel cell aqueous alkaline solution 20 50 p peak 0 c commercial research 30 200 zinc air battery aqueous alkaline solution 40 mass production 150 300 direct carbon fuel cell several different 700 850 80 70 commercial research 18 direct borohydride fuel cell aqueous alkaline solution 70 commercial 400 450 microbial fuel cell polymer membrane or humic acid 40 research 10 50 upflow microbial fuel cell umfc 40 research 1 5 regenerative fuel cell polymer membrane ionomer 50 commercial research 200 300 direct methanol fuel cell polymer membrane ionomer 100 mw 1 kw 90 120 20 30 10 25 61 commercial research 125 reformed methanol fuel cell polymer membrane ionomer 5 w 100 kw 250 300 reformer 125 200 pbi 50 60 25 40 commercial research 8 50 direct ethanol fuel cell polymer membrane ionomer 140 mw cm² 25 90 120 research 12 redox fuel cell broken anchor rfc liquid electrolytes with redox shuttle and polymer membrane ionomer 1 kw 10 mw research 12 50 phosphoric acid fuel cell molten phosphoric acid h 3 po 4 10 mw 150 200 55 40 61 co gen 90 commercial research 4 00 4 50 solid acid fuel cell h conducting oxyanion salt solid acid 10 w 1 kw 200 300 55 60 40 45 commercial research 15 molten carbonate fuel cell molten alkaline carbonate 100 mw 600 650 55 45 55 61 commercial research 1000 tubular solid oxide fuel cell tsofc o 2 conducting ceramic oxide 100 mw 850 1100 60 65 55 60 commercial research 3 50 protonic ceramic fuel cell h conducting ceramic oxide 700 research 80 planar solid oxide fuel cell o 2 conducting ceramic oxide 100 mw 500 1100 60 65 55 60 61 commercial research 800 enzymatic biofuel cells any that will not denature the enzyme 40 research 10 magnesium air fuel cell salt water 20 to 55 90 commercial research 15 glossary of terms in table further information glossary of fuel cell terms anode the electrode at which oxidation a loss of electrons takes place for fuel cells and other galvanic cells the anode is the negative terminal for electrolytic cells where electrolysis occurs the anode is the positive terminal 62 aqueous solution 63 of relating to or resembling water made from with or by water catalyst a chemical substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed after the reaction it can potentially be recovered from the reaction mixture and is chemically unchanged the catalyst lowers the activation energy required allowing the reaction to proceed more quickly or at a lower temperature in a fuel cell the catalyst facilitates the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen it is usually made of platinum powder very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth the catalyst is rough and porous so the maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen the platinum coated side of the catalyst faces the membrane in the fuel cell 62 cathode the electrode at which reduction a gain of electrons occurs for fuel cells and other galvanic cells the cathode is the positive terminal for electrolytic cells where electrolysis occurs the cathode is the negative terminal 62 electrolyte a substance that conducts charged ions from one electrode to the other in a fuel cell battery or electrolyzer 62 fuel cell stack individual fuel cells connected in a series fuel cells are stacked to increase voltage 62 matrix something within or from which something else originates develops or takes form 64 membrane the separating layer in a fuel cell that acts as electrolyte an ion exchanger as well as a barrier film separating the gases in the anode and cathode compartments of the fuel cell 62 molten carbonate fuel cell mcfc a type of fuel cell that contains a molten carbonate electrolyte carbonate ions co 3 2 are transported from the cathode to the anode operating temperatures are typically near 650 c 62 phosphoric acid fuel cell pafc a type of fuel cell in which the electrolyte consists of concentrated phosphoric acid h 3 po 4 protons h are transported from the anode to the cathode the operating temperature range is generally 160 220 c 62 proton exchange membrane fuel cell pem a fuel cell incorporating a solid polymer membrane used as its electrolyte protons h are transported from the anode to the cathode the operating temperature range is generally 60 100 c for low temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell lt pemfc 62 pem fuel cell with operating temperature of 120 200 c is called high temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell ht pemfc 65 solid oxide fuel cell sofc a type of fuel cell in which the electrolyte is a solid nonporous metal oxide typically zirconium oxide zro 2 treated with y 2 o 3 and o 2 is transported from the cathode to the anode any co in the reformate gas is oxidized to co 2 at the anode temperatures of operation are typically 800 1 000 c 62 solution 66 an act or the process by which a solid liquid or gaseous substance is homogeneously mixed with a liquid or sometimes a gas or solid a homogeneous mixture formed by this process especially a single phase liquid system the condition of being dissolved efficiency of leading fuel cell types edit theoretical maximum efficiency edit the energy efficiency of a system or device that converts energy is measured by the ratio of the amount of useful energy put out by the system output energy to the total amount of energy that is put in input energy or by useful output energy as a percentage of the total input energy in the case of fuel cells useful output energy is measured in electrical energy produced by the system input energy is the energy stored in the fuel according to the u s department of energy fuel cells are generally between 40 and 60 energy efficient 67 this is higher than some other systems for energy generation for example the internal combustion engine of a car can be about 43 energy efficient 68 69 steam power plants usually achieve efficiencies of 30 40 70 while combined cycle gas turbine and steam plants can achieve efficiencies above 60 71 72 in combined heat and power chp systems the waste heat produced by the primary power cycle whether fuel cell nuclear fission or combustion is captured and put to use increasing the efficiency of the system to up to 85 90 6 the theoretical maximum efficiency of any type of power generation system is never reached in practice and it does not consider other steps in power generation such as production transportation and storage of fuel and conversion of the electricity into mechanical power however this calculation allows the comparison of different types of power generation the theoretical maximum efficiency of a fuel cell approaches 100 73 while the theoretical maximum efficiency of internal combustion engines is approximately 58 74 in practice edit values are given from 40 for acidic 50 for molten carbonate to 60 for alkaline solid oxide and pem fuel cells 75 fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery 76 except as hydrogen but in some applications such as stand alone power plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power they are combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system as of 2019 90 of hydrogen was used for oil refining chemicals and fertilizer production where hydrogen is required for the haber bosch process 77 and as of 2024 more than 95 hydrogen was still produced using steam methane reformation about 95 is grey hydrogen most of the rest is blue hydrogen and only about 1 is green hydrogen a process that emits carbon dioxide 78 in addition the overall efficiency electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity of such plants known as round trip efficiency using pure hydrogen and pure oxygen can be from 35 up to 50 percent depending on gas density and other conditions 79 the electrolyzer fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen and is therefore suited for long term storage solid oxide fuel cells produce heat from the recombination of the oxygen and hydrogen the ceramic can run as hot as 800 c 1 470 f this heat can be captured and used to heat water in a micro combined heat and power m chp application when the heat is captured total efficiency can reach 80 90 at the unit but does not consider production and distribution losses chp units are being developed today for the european home market professor jeremy p meyers in the electrochemical society journal interface in 2008 wrote while fuel cells are efficient relative to combustion engines they are not as efficient as batteries primarily due to the inefficiency of the oxygen reduction reaction and the oxygen evolution reaction should the hydrogen be formed by electrolysis of water t hey make the most sense for operation disconnected from the grid or when fuel can be provided continuously for applications that require frequent and relatively rapid start ups where zero emissions are a requirement as in enclosed spaces such as warehouses and where hydrogen is considered an acceptable reactant a pem fuel cell is becoming an increasingly attractive choice if exchanging batteries is inconvenient 80 in 2013 military organizations were evaluating fuel cells to determine if they could significantly reduce the battery weight carried by soldiers 81 in vehicles edit in a fuel cell vehicle the tank to wheel efficiency is greater than 45 at low loads 82 and shows average values of about 36 when a driving cycle like the nedc new european driving cycle is used as test procedure 83 the comparable nedc value for a diesel vehicle is 22 in 2008 honda released a demonstration fuel cell electric vehicle the honda fcx clarity with fuel stack claiming a 60 tank to wheel efficiency 84 it is also important to take losses due to fuel production transportation and storage into account fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power plant to wheel efficiency of 22 if the hydrogen is stored as high pressure gas and 17 if it is stored as liquid hydrogen 85 applications edit type 212 submarine with fuel cell propulsion this example in dry dock is operated by the german navy power edit see also hydrogen fuel cell power plant stationary fuel cells are used for commercial industrial and residential primary and backup power generation fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations such as spacecraft remote weather stations large parks communications centers rural locations including research stations and in certain military applications a fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight and have no major moving parts because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99 9999 reliability 86 this equates to less than one minute of downtime in a six year period 86 since fuel cell electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves but rather rely on external storage units they can be successfully applied in large scale energy storage rural areas being one example 87 there are many different types of stationary fuel cells so efficiencies vary but most are between 40 and 60 energy efficient 6 however when the fuel cell s waste heat is used to heat a building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85 6 this is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants which are only about one third energy efficient 88 assuming production at scale fuel cells could save 20 40 on energy costs when used in cogeneration systems 89 fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution other than co 2 for every 1 000 kw h produced compared to 25 pounds of pollutants generated by conventional combustion systems 90 fuel cells also produce 97 less nitrogen oxide emissions than conventional coal fired power plants one such pilot program is operating on stuart island in washington state there the stuart island energy initiative 91 has built a complete closed loop system solar panels power an electrolyzer which makes hydrogen the hydrogen is stored in a 500 u s gallon 1 900 l tank at 200 pounds per square inch 1 400 kpa and runs a relion fuel cell to provide full electric back up to the off the grid residence another closed system loop was unveiled in late 2011 in hempstead ny 92 fuel cells can be used with low quality gas from landfills or waste water treatment plants to generate power and lower methane emissions a 2 8 mw fuel cell plant in california is said to be the largest of the type 93 small scale sub 5kwhr fuel cells are being developed for use in residential off grid deployment 94 cogeneration edit see also combined cycle hydrogen power plant combined heat and power chp fuel cell systems including micro combined heat and power microchp systems are used to generate both electricity and heat for homes see home fuel cell office building and factories the system generates constant electric power selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat as the result chp systems have the potential to save primary energy as they can make use of waste heat which is generally rejected by thermal energy conversion systems 95 a typical capacity range of home fuel cell is 1 3 kw el 4 8 kw th 96 97 chp systems linked to absorption chillers use their waste heat for refrigeration 98 the waste heat from ...
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