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an s 1874 expedition to taiwan as robert eskildsen describes japan s popular media exaggerated the aborigines violent nature in some cases by wrongly accusing them of cannibalism 197 this horrid practice the myth and reality of traditional maori cannibalism 2008 by new zealand historian paul moon received a hostile reception by some māori who felt the book tarnished their whole people however the factual accuracy of the book was not seriously disputed and even critics such as margaret mutu grant that cannibalism was definitely practised and that it was part of our māori culture 198 ethics modern views while in modern society cannibalism is widely considered ethically and morally wrong mathew lu notes that it is surprisingly difficult to explain why 199 distinguishing active killing someone to eat them from passive cannibalism eating the flesh of somebody whose death one has not caused lu notes that it is chiefly passive cannibalism that poses a problem since killing somebody is in most cases considered wrong anyway in such cases the wrongness comes from the killing regardless of whether or not it is followed by cannibalism 200 but the question of eating the body of someone who has died of unrelated reasons is harder to evaluate lu agrees with several other authors that on a utilitarian or kantian basis it seems impossible to establish that such acts are wrong since no living person is wronged in the process in utilitarianism if a cannibal act increases the happiness of some people say the eaters enjoy their meal without decreasing the happiness of others maybe the eaten had no friends or relatives or they do not know about the cannibalism it can even be considered as beneficial leading to a net gain in happiness 201 while kantian philosophy demands that other human beings should always be treated as ends never merely as means corpses are no longer autonomous persons and there is no straightforward basis on which to establish that they cannot be used as means for example for eating 202 j jeremy wisnewski who evaluates these and other arguments in a similar manner concludes that there is no rational justification for the cannibalism prohibition since all arguments for the immorality of cannibalism he was able to find and examine have been found wanting for him a general decision against eating human flesh can therefore only be based on sentimental not on moral reasons 203 while lu agrees that utilitarian and kantian philosophy cannot explain why non deadly cannibalism is wrong he suggests instead turning to a virtue ethics in the aristotelian tradition on this basis he argues it is possible to assign genuine moral value to human corpses that therefore deserve to be treated with respect a respect that would be violated by using them as food except in life or death situations 204 he considers the preservation of human life the sole acceptable justification for cannibalism meaning that corpses may be eaten as a last resort to face off starvation if other provisions are unavailable 205 other than that while some usages of a corpse may still be respectful eating it is not since it reduces the body to mere food a general form it shares with other edible substances in the process of cooking and eating a body the previous human form of the eaten is disregarded and completely destroyed lu argues that whenever alternative non human foods are available it is unnecessary disrespectful and therefore wrong to destroy the residual humanity still present in a corpse in such a way 206 from a consequentialist perspective john shand considers it impossible to give a rational moral justification against non deadly cannibalism because a person who is already dead cannot be harmed further by being consumed he concludes that the strong moral abhorrence of cannibalism widely felt in modern society is groundless and impervious to argument considering this and some other widely held but rarely rationally justified convictions he concludes that we are not as rational as we like to think we are 207 he moreover notes that the evaluation of cases following a violent death depends on how one morally evaluates the death murdering someone is wrong by definition hence murdering someone to eat them is wrong too but killing enemy fighters in warfare is often considered justified at least in certain cases and shand argues that in such cases there can be no rational reason to consider the subsequent cannibalization of fallen enemies once a widespread practice in societies that engaged in exocannibalism as wrong 208 in a 1982 paper that attracted most notoriety 209 new zealand born philosopher richard routley likewise argues that certain forms of cannibalism are morally admissible taking a non speciesist viewpoint he rejects the assumption that homo sapiens as a species deserves special treatment instead arguing that there is no morally relevant distinction between humans and all other creatures 210 for him a non chauvinist ethics only leaves the choice between vegetarian options which exclude the eating of any meat and cannibal istic options which allow the consumption of both animal and human meat under specific circumstances 211 as long as people are not deliberately killed he regards the respectful consumption of their dead bodies as admissible especially if they had consented to this treatment in advance like many people agree to donate their organs after death but also if they had not 212 regarding the latter case he argues that buried bodies are eaten by bacteria other microorganisms and small animals detritivores so a process of consumption happens in either case without requiring consent while cremation is another alternative he rejects it as wasteful compared to carefully compost ing a body through consumption 213 routley furthermore writes that in cases where killing someone is justified in warfare self defence or possibly as punishment the subsequent cannibalization of the dead body is admissible since it was not the reason for the killing 214 for him the fact that most people consider it unacceptable to raise other humans for food while accepting that animals are bred and raised for this purpose poses a serious and difficult question he argues that there are no sufficiently significant and relevant differences between humans and other creatures to justify such a difference in treatment 215 for him any nonchauvinistic solution to when raising or killing an individual for food is considered acceptable must not take the individual s species into account he considers it unjustifiable to treat humans differently from other animals merely because they are human 216 according to some versions of moral relativism it is impossible to summarily reject or accept cannibalism because any practice can only be judged within the context of the culture where it takes place hence if the members of a culture accept and practise the consumption of human flesh in certain circumstances or even the killing of certain persons to eat them outsiders from other cultures cannot tell them that they are wrong 217 cultivated human meat modern technology has made it possible to cultivate meat in the laboratory instead of butchering a creature to provide it this had triggered discussions about whether eating such meat from species that are normally considered off limits including humans is ethically acceptable since no suffering and death is involved philosophers thomas montefiore and john goris argue that though the usual distinction between fair game meats e g chicken and fish and off limits meats e g from humans or from threatened species such as rhinos and tigers remains intuitively relevant when eating cultivated meat there is no rational justification for upholding it logically one either has to reject the consumption of any cultivated meat or to accept that it might come from arbitrary species including humans 218 g owen schaefer and julian savulescu discuss the possible spectre of cannibalism as a potential objection against cultivated meat in general they note that most cases of cannibalism are morally objectionable because they involve the desecration of a corpse and often also the deliberate killing of a human being with neither factor applying to cultivated human meat eating such meat could be considered disrespectful towards the donor whose genetic or tissue samples are used but they argue that this is only a problem if it happens without the donor s consent hence they see no ethical reason for banning the cultivation of human meat for eating purposes as long as proper consent was received considering that most people feel revulsion at the prospect of cannibalism they doubt that such consumption could become widespread while granting that it might find a niche audience 219 marco locarno on the other hand argues that the consumption of cultivated human meat should be forbidden he writes that from a deontological standpoint treating human tissue as food would be degrading for both the donor and humanity as a whole since eating implies superiority over the object eaten and eating this tissue would deny its specific humanness treating it as not essentially different from other food he admits that when taking a consequentialist utilitarian standpoint instead eating cultivated human meat seems acceptable as long as the donor had consented to this but continues that even from this standpoint it should be forbidden because of possible negative consequences among these he sees the risk that if people discover they like the taste some might develop a curiosity or even a craving for natural human meat possibly causing some to engage in harmful acts such as stealing corpses or even killing others to eat them another risk he sees is the possible emergence of a black market in cultivated human meat from nonconsenting donors 220 in a 2024 british survey 88 of the respondents said that the commercial production of cultivated human meat should be forbidden a higher ratio than for any animal species included in the survey on the other hand when questioned whether they would try such meat it were legally allowed and commercially available 20 of the respondents said they would for reasons such as curiosity this constituted a considerable fraction of the 26 willing to try cultivated animal meat men and young people below 25 were more inclined to try human meat than women and older persons 221 history see also list of incidents of cannibalism a german map published in 1893 depicting the distribution of human cannibalism as seen by the publishers pink areas thought to still be fully cannibalistic at that time light green areas considered formerly or rarely cannibalistic there is archaeological evidence that cannibalism has been practised for at least hundreds of thousands of years by early homo sapiens and archaic hominins 222 including homo erectus 223 among modern humans cannibalism has been practised by various groups 164 an incomplete list of cases where it is documented to have occurred in institutionalized form includes prehistoric 224 225 and early modern europe 179 south america 226 mesoamerica 227 iroquoian peoples in north america 228 parts of western and central africa 24 china 229 230 and sumatra 24 among pre contact aboriginal australians 231 among māori in new zealand 232 on some other polynesian islands 24 as well as in new guinea 21 the solomon islands 233 and fiji 234 evidence of cannibalism has also been found in ruins associated with the ancestral puebloans at cowboy wash in the southwestern united states 235 236 237 after world war i institutionalized cannibalism has become very rare but cases were still reported during times of famine occasional cannibal acts committed by individual criminals also are documented throughout the 20th and 21st centuries the americas this section is an excerpt from cannibalism in the americas edit a scene depicting ritualistic aztec cannibalism being practiced in the codex magliabechiano folio 73r the history and scope of cannibalism in the americas is complex involving ritual or cultural practices connected with human sacrifice and warfare as well as instances motivated by famine and criminal cases the modern term cannibal is derived from the name of the island caribs kalinago who were encountered by christopher columbus in the bahamas while numerous cultures in the americas were reported by european explorers and colonizers to have engaged in cannibalism some of these claims may be unreliable since the spanish empire used them to justify conquest 238 at least some cultures have been archeologically proven beyond any doubt to have undertaken institutionalized cannibalism this includes human bones uncovered in a cave hamlet confirming accounts of the xiximes undertaking ritualized raids as part of their agricultural cycle after every harvest also proven are the aztec ritual ceremonies during the spanish conquest at tecoaque the anasazi in the 12th century have also been demonstrated to have undertaken cannibalism possibly due to drought as shown by proteins from human flesh found in recovered feces there is near universal agreement that some mesoamericans practiced human sacrifice and cannibalism but there is no scholarly consensus as to its extent anthropologist marvin harris author of cannibals and kings has suggested that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward since the aztec diet was lacking in proteins according to harris the aztec economy would not support feeding enslaved people the captured in war and the columns of prisoners were marching meat 239 conversely bernard r ortiz de montellano has proposed that aztec cannibalism coincided with harvest times and should be considered more of a thanksgiving montellano rejects the theories of harner and harris saying that with evidence of so many tributes and intensive chinampa agriculture the aztecs did not need any other food sources 240 william arens 1979 book the man eating myth claimed that there is no firm substantiable evidence for the socially accepted practice of cannibalism anywhere in the world at any time in history but his views have been largely rejected as irreconcilable with the actual evidence 241 242 in later times cannibalism has occasionally been practiced as a last resort by people suffering from famine well known examples include the ill fated donner party 1846 1847 and the crash of uruguayan air force flight 571 1972 after which the survivors ate the bodies of the dead additionally there are cases of people engaging in cannibalism for sexual pleasure such as albert fish and jeffrey dahmer africa this section is an excerpt from cannibalism in africa edit sale of human flesh in the late 16th century engraving by theodor de bry illustrating filippo pigafetta s report of the kingdom of congo which contains the oldest known account of cannibalism in central africa 243 acts of cannibalism in africa have been reported from various pa...
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