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tion of a student 115 the guru states joel mlecko is more than someone who teaches specific type of knowledge and includes in its scope someone who is also a counselor a sort of parent of mind and soul who helps mold values and experiential knowledge as much as specific knowledge an exemplar in life an inspirational source and who reveals the meaning of life 115 pramana means of knowledge edit main article epistemology in advaita vedanta in classical indian thought pramana means of knowledge concerns questions like how correct knowledge can be acquired how one knows how one does not and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired 116 117 in contrast to other schools of indian philosophy early vedanta paid little attention to pramana 118 the brahmasutras are not concerned with pramana and pratyaksa sense perception and anumana inference refer there to sruti and smriti respectively 118 shankara recognized the means of knowledge 119 note 25 but his thematic focus was upon metaphysics and soteriology and he took for granted the pramanas 124 for shankara sabda is the only means of knowledge for attaining brahman jnana 125 according to sengaku mayeda in no place in his works does he give any systematic account of them 124 taking atman brahman to be self evident svapramanaka and self established svatahsiddha and an investigation of the means of knowledge is of no use for the attainment of final release 124 nevertheless the advaita tradition accepts altogether six kinds of pramāṇas 126 127 128 125 while adi shankara emphasized śabda शब्द relying on word testimony of past or present reliable experts with regard to religious insights 117 129 126 130 and also accepted pratyakṣam प्रत्यक्षम् perception and anumāṇam अनुमानम् inference classical advaita vedānta just like the bhatta purvamimamsaka school also accepts upamāṇam उपमानम् comparison analogy arthāpattih अर्थापत्तिः postulation derivation from circumstances 117 131 and anupalabdhih अनुपलब्धिः non perception negative cognitive proof 129 126 samadhi edit according to dubois shankara s advaita emphasizes that since brahman is ever present brahman knowledge is immediate and requires no action that is striving and effort 36 yet the contemporary advaita tradition which is a yogic advaita synthesis which developed in the late mediaeval period also prescribes elaborate preparatory practice including yogic samadhi posing a paradox which is also recognized in other spiritual disciplines and traditions 132 42 note 10 shankara regarded the srutis as the means of knowledge of brahman and he was ambivalent about yogic practices and meditation which at best may prepare one for brahma jnana web 5 according to rambachan criticising vivekananda shankara states that the knowledge of brahman can only be obtained from inquiry of the shruti and not by yoga or samadhi which at best can only silence the mind 133 the bhamati school and the vivarana school differed on the role of contemplation but they both deny the possibility of perceiving supersensuous knowledge through popular yoga techniques 134 later advaita texts like the dṛg dṛśya viveka 14th century and vedāntasara of sadananda 15th century added samādhi as a means to liberation a theme that was also emphasized by swami vivekananda 44 the vivekachudamani traditionally attributed to shankara but post dating him 135 conceives of nirvikalpa samadhi as the premier method of self realization over and above the well known vedantic discipline of listening reflection and deep contemplation 67 koller states that yogic concentration is an aid to gaining knowledge in advaita 136 anubhava experience edit the role of anubhava anubhuti experience intuition 137 as experience in gaining brahman jnana is contested while neo vedanta claims a central position for anubhava as experience shankara himself regarded reliance on textual authority as sufficient for gaining brahman jnana 138 note 26 the intuition of brahman 137 and used anubhava interchangeably with pratipatta understanding 139 arvind sharma argues that shankara s own direct experience of the ultimate truth guided him in selecting those passages of the scriptures that resonate with this experience and will select them as the key with which to open previously closed even forbidden doors 140 note 27 the vivekachudamani explicit ly declar es that experience anubhuti is a pramana or means of knowing vcm 59 67 and neo vedanta also accepts anubhava personal experience as a means of knowledge 141 dalal and others state that anubhava does not center around some sort of mystical experience but around the correct knowledge of brahman 93 142 nikhalananda concurs stating that knowledge of atman and brahman can only be reached by buddhi reason 143 stating that mysticism is a kind of intuitive knowledge while buddhi is the highest means of attaining knowledge 144 adhyaropa apavada imposition and negation edit see also neti neti since gaudapada 145 who adopted the buddhist four cornered negation which negates any positive predicates of the absolute 146 147 note 28 a central method in advaita vedanta to express the inexpressable is the method called adhyaropa apavada 145 in this method which was highly estimated by satchidanandendra saraswati a property is imposed adhyaropa on atman to convince one of its existence whereafter the imposition is removed apavada to reveal the true nature of atman as nondual and undefinable 149 in this method that which cannot be expressed is expressed through false attribution and subsequent denial 150 as shankara writes first let me bring them on the right path and then i will gradually be able to bring them round to the final truth afterwards 150 for example atman the real i is described as witness giving it an attribute to separate it from non self since this implies a duality between observer and observed next the notion of witness is dropped by showing that the self cannot be seen and is beyond qualifications and only that what is remains without using any words web 6 after one separates oneself i e i or atman from the sense objects the qualities superimposed on self are also negated by saying that which not being and not non being cannot be described by words without beginning and end bg 13 32 or as in satyam jnanam anantam brahman beyond words beyond mind and speech etc here there is an attempt to negate the earlier attribute like being witness bliss most subtlest etc after this negation of false superimposition self alone shines one enters into the state of nirvikalp samadhi where there is no second no one to experience and hence this state cannot be described in words web 6 the mahavakyas recognising one s true identity edit moksha liberation from suffering and rebirth and attaining immortality is attained by disidentification from the body mind complex and gaining self knowledge as being in essence brahman 1 discovering one s identity with brahman 76 according to shankara the individual ātman and brahman seem different at the empirical level of reality but this difference is only an illusion and at the highest level of reality they are really identical 151 the real self is sat the existent that is atman brahman 152 153 note 1 whereas the difference between atman and non atman is deemed self evident knowledge of one s true identity as brahman is revealed by the shruti especially the upanishadic statement tat tvam asi mahavakyas edit according to shankara a large number of upanishadic statements reveal the identity of atman and brahman in the advaita vedanta tradition four of those statements the mahavakyas which are taken literal in contrast to other statements have a special importance in revealing this identity 88 154 they are तत्त्वमसि tat tvam asi chandogya vi 8 7 traditionally rendered as that thou art that you are 155 156 157 with tat in ch u 6 8 7 referring to sat the existent 158 19 159 correctly translated as that s how thus you are 155 157 160 with tat in ch u 6 12 3 its original location from where it was copied to other verses 155 referring to the very nature of all existence as permeated by the finest essence 161 162 अहं ब्रह्मास्मि aham brahmāsmi brhadāranyaka i 4 10 i am brahman or i am divine 163 प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म prajñānam brahma aitareya v 3 prajñānam note 29 is brahman note 30 अयमात्मा ब्रह्म ayamātmā brahma mandukya ii this atman is brahman that you are edit the longest chapter of shankara s upadesasahasri chapter 18 that art thou is devoted to considerations on the insight i am ever free the existent sat and the identity expressed in chandogya upanishad 6 8 7 in the mahavakya great sentence tat tvam asi that thou art 166 167 in this statement according to shankara tat refers to sat 167 the existent 158 19 168 169 existence being web 8 or brahman 170 the real the root of the world 167 note 31 the true essence or root or origin of everything that exists 19 168 web 8 tvam refers to one s real i pratyagatman or inner self 171 the direct witness within everything 18 free from caste family and purifying ceremonies 172 the essence atman which the individual at the core is 173 174 as shankara states in the upadesasahasri up i 174 through such sentences as thou art that one knows one s own atman the witness of all the internal organs up i 18 190 through such sentences as thou art the existent right knowledge concerning the inner atman will become clearer up i 18 193 194 in the sentence thou art that t he word that means inner atman 175 the statement tat tvam asi sheds the false notion that atman is different from brahman 176 according to nakamura the non duality of atman and brahman is a famous characteristic of sankara s thought but it was already taught by sundarapandya 177 c 600 ce or earlier 178 shankara cites sundarapandya in his comments to brahma sutra verse i 1 4 when the metaphorical or false atman is non existent the ideas of my child my body are sublated therefore when it is realized that i am the existent brahman atman how can anyduty exist 179 from this and a large number of other accordances nakamura concludes that shankar was not an original thinker but a synthesizer of existing advaita and the rejuvenator as well as a defender of ancient learning 180 direct perception versus contemplation of the mahavakyas edit in the upadesasahasri shankara shankara is ambivalent on the need for meditation on the upanishadic mahavakya he states that right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing 38 and rejects prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana meditation that is meditation on the meaning of the sentences and in up ii 3 recommends parisamkhyana 181 separating atman from everything that is not atman that is the sense objects and sense organs and the pleasant and unpleasant things and merit and demerit connected with them 182 yet shankara then concludes with declaring that only atman exists stating that all the sentences of the upanishads concerning non duality of atman should be fully contemplated should be contemplated 183 as mayeda states how they prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana versus parisamkhyana differ from each other in not known 184 prasamkhyana was advocated by mandana misra 185 the older contemporary of shankara who was the most influential advaitin until the 10th century 35 186 note 9 according to mandana the mahavakyas are incapable by themselves of bringing about brahmajnana the vedanta vakyas convey an indirect knowledge which is made direct only by deep meditation prasamkhyana the latter is a continuous contemplation of the purport of the mahavakyas 187 vācaspati miśra a student of mandana misra agreed with mandana misra and their stance is defended by the bhamati school founded by vācaspati miśra 188 in contrast the vivarana school founded by prakasatman c 1200 1300 189 follows shankara closely arguing that the mahavakyas are the direct cause of gaining knowledge 190 shankara s insistence on direct knowledge as liberating also differs from the asparsa yoga described in gaudapada s mandukyakarika iii 39 46 191 in this practice of non contact a sparśa the mind is controlled and brought to rest and does not create things appearances after which it grasps it becomes non dual free from the subject grasping object dualism 192 52 knowing that only atman brahman is real the creations of the mind are seen as false appearances mk iii 31 33 when the mind is brought to rest it becomes or is brahman mk iii 46 191 renouncement of ritualism edit in the upadesasahasri shankara discourages ritual worship such as oblations to deva god because that assumes the self within is different from brahman note 32 note 33 the doctrine of difference is wrong asserts shankara because he who knows the brahman is one and he is another does not know brahman 197 198 the false notion that atman is different from brahman 176 is connected with the novice s conviction that upadesasaharsi ii 1 25 i am one and he is another i am ignorant experience pleasure and pain am bound and a transmigrator whereas he is essentially different from me the god not subject to transmigration by worshipping him with oblation offerings homage and the like through the performance of the actions prescribed for my class and stage of life i wish to get out of the ocean of transmigratory existence how am i he 199 recognizing oneself as the existent brahman which is mediated by scriptural teachings is contrasted with the notion of i act which is mediated by relying on sense perception and the like 200 according to shankara the statement thou art that remove s the delusion of a hearer 201 so through sentences as thou art that one knows one s own atman the witness of all internal organs 202 and not from any actions 203 note 34 with this realization the performance of rituals is prohibited since the use of rituals and their requisites is contradictory to the realization of the identity of atman with the highest atman 205 philosophy reality truth brahman sat and the world edit the swan is an important motif in advaita the white colour of swan symbolises sattva guṇa and the ability to discern satya real eternal from mithya unreal changing just as the mythical swan paramahamsa discerns milk from water classical advaita vedānta states that all reality and everything in the experienced world has its root in brahman which is unchanging intelligent consciousness 4 to advaitins there is no duality between a creator and the created universe 4 206 all objects all experiences all matter all consciousness all awareness are somehow also this one fundamental reality brahman 4 yet the knowing self has various experiences of reality during the waking dream and dreamless states 207 and advaita vedānta acknowledges and admits that from the empirical perspective there are numerous distinctions 208 advaita explains this by postulating different levels of reality 209 210 211 207 and by its theory of errors anirvacaniya khyati 212 4 darśana view central concerns edit the ripple jivatman is non different from...
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