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considered anti realist in the robust sense used here are considered realist in the sense synonymous with moral universalism for example universal prescriptivism is a universalist form of non cognitivism which claims that morality is derived from reasoning about implied imperatives and divine command theory and ideal observer theory are universalist forms of ethical subjectivism which claim that morality is derived from the edicts of a god or the hypothetical decrees of a perfectly rational being respectively anthropology edit morality with practical reasoning edit practical reason is necessary for moral agency but it is not a sufficient condition for moral agency 20 real life issues that need solutions do need both rationality and emotion to be sufficiently moral one uses rationality as a pathway to the ultimate decision but the environment and emotions towards the environment at the moment must be a factor for the result to be truly moral as morality is subject to culture some philosophers argue that moral acceptability is determined entirely by cultural acceptance while others contend that universal moral truths exist independently of any culture s beliefs both practical reason and relevant emotional factors are acknowledged as significant in determining the morality of a decision 21 tribal and territorial edit celia green made a distinction between tribal and territorial morality 22 she characterizes the latter as predominantly negative and proscriptive it defines a person s territory including their property and dependents which is not to be damaged or interfered with apart from these proscriptions territorial morality is permissive allowing the individual whatever behaviour that does not interfere with the territory of another by contrast tribal morality is prescriptive imposing the norms of the collective on the individual these norms will be arbitrary culturally dependent and flexible whereas territorial morality aims at rules which are universal and absolute such as kant s categorical imperative and geisler s graded absolutism green relates the development of territorial morality to the rise of the concept of private property and the ascendancy of contract over status in group and out group edit main article in group and out group some observers hold that individuals apply distinct sets of moral rules to people depending on their membership of an in group the individual and those they believe to be of the same group or an out group people not entitled to be treated according to the same rules some biologists anthropologists and evolutionary psychologists believe this in group out group discrimination has evolved because it enhances group survival this belief has been confirmed by simple computational models of evolution 23 in simulations this discrimination can result in both unexpected cooperation towards the in group and irrational hostility towards the out group 24 gary r johnson and v s falger have argued that nationalism and patriotism are forms of this in group out group boundary jonathan haidt has noted 25 that experimental observation indicating an in group criterion provides one moral foundation substantially used by conservatives but far less so by liberals in group preference is also helpful at the individual level for the passing on of one s genes for example a mother who favors her own children more highly than the children of other people will give greater resources to her children than she will to strangers thus heightening her children s chances of survival and her own genes chances of being perpetuated due to this within a population there is substantial selection pressure exerted toward this kind of self interest such that eventually all parents wind up favoring their own children the in group over other children the out group comparing cultures edit peterson and seligman taking an anthropological view look across cultures and geo cultural areas and across millennia 26 they conclude that certain virtues have prevailed in all cultures they examined the major virtues they identified include wisdom knowledge courage humanity justice temperance and transcendence each of these include several divisions for instance humanity includes love kindness and social intelligence others theorize that morality is not always absolute contending that moral issues often differ along cultural lines a 2014 pew research study among several nations illuminates significant cultural differences among issues commonly related to morality including divorce extramarital affairs homosexuality gambling abortion alcohol use contraceptive use and premarital sex each of the 40 countries in this study has a range of percentages according to what percentage of each country believes the common moral issues are acceptable unacceptable or not moral issues at all each percentage regarding the significance of the moral issue varies greatly on the culture in which the moral issue is presented 27 advocates of a theory known as moral relativism subscribe to the notion that moral virtues are right or wrong only within the context of a certain standpoint e g cultural community in other words what is morally acceptable in one culture may be taboo in another they further contend that no moral virtue can objectively be proven right or wrong 28 critics of moral relativism point to historical atrocities such as infanticide slavery or genocide as counter arguments noting the difficulty in accepting these actions simply through cultural lenses fons trompenaars tested members of different cultures with various moral dilemmas one of these was whether the driver of a car would have his friend a passenger riding in the car lie in order to protect the driver from the consequences of driving too fast and hitting a pedestrian trompenaars found that different cultures had quite different expectations from none to definite 29 anthropologists from oxford s institute of cognitive evolutionary anthropology analysed ethnographic accounts of ethics from 60 societies comprising over 600 000 words from over 600 sources and discovered what they believe to be seven universal moral rules help your family help your group return favours be brave defer to superiors divide resources fairly and respect others property 30 31 sociology edit from a sociological perspective morality is often understood as helping to maintain the health and order of human society public morality builds trust beyond kinship enabling cooperation and greater collective productivity however when productive forces or relations of production change or when a technology secures an outcome that morality once sought to protect moral systems can shift for example the invention of the condom allowed planned reproduction and over the past century this has changed social attitudes toward marriage and sexuality 32 33 34 in an era of gender equality women have more choices and equal rights but this has also brought moral debates over premarital sex abortion and artificial insemination issues where rights and morality remain contested 35 36 moral attitudes also vary with material conditions in times or places of low productivity waste is considered intolerably immoral but in times of surplus the moral weight of waste is far smaller citation needed over time some stable moral rules become codified as law while others enter into religion in some regions and periods morality law and religion are inseparable for example in areas governed by islamic law religious doctrine itself is a codified moral system 37 such moral systems effectively ensured group health and survival in regions with very low agricultural productivity the middle east north africa and west asia however in modern contexts these doctrines have come into significant tension with contemporary values 38 as a result what is considered moral from a western universalist perspective may not apply in other societies and the reverse is also true marxism and morality edit marxism holds that morality is a form of social ideology a set of norms and standards that govern people s collective life and behavior different eras and different classes have different moral concepts no morality is eternal or unchanging morality is not innate human moral concepts are gradually shaped by acquired education propaganda and long term influence of public opinion marxism is thus akin to a form of moral relativism 39 40 41 42 evolution edit see also altruism evolutionary explanations evolution of morality and evolutionary ethics the development of modern morality is a process closely tied to sociocultural evolution some evolutionary biologists particularly sociobiologists believe that morality is a product of evolutionary forces acting at an individual level and also at the group level through group selection although to what degree this actually occurs is a controversial topic in evolutionary theory some sociobiologists contend that the set of behaviors that constitute morality evolved largely because they provided possible survival or reproductive benefits i e increased evolutionary success humans consequently evolved pro social emotions such as feelings of empathy or guilt in response to these moral behaviors on this understanding moralities are sets of self perpetuating and biologically driven behaviors which encourage cooperation biologists contend that all social animals from ants to elephants have modified their behaviors by restraining immediate selfishness in order to improve their evolutionary fitness human morality although sophisticated and complex relative to the moralities of other animals is essentially a natural phenomenon that evolved to restrict excessive individualism that could undermine a group s cohesion and thereby reducing the individuals fitness 43 on this view moral codes are ultimately founded on emotional instincts and intuitions that were selected for in the past because they aided survival and reproduction inclusive fitness for example the maternal bond is selected for because it improves the survival of offspring the westermarck effect where close proximity during early years reduces mutual sexual attraction underpins taboos against incest because it decreases the likelihood of genetically risky behaviour such as inbreeding the phenomenon of reciprocity in nature is seen by evolutionary biologists as one way to begin to understand human morality its function is typically to ensure a reliable supply of essential resources especially for animals living in a habitat where food quantity or quality fluctuates unpredictably for example some vampire bats fail to feed on prey some nights while others manage to consume a surplus bats that did eat will then regurgitate part of their blood meal to save a conspecific from starvation since these animals live in close knit groups over many years an individual can count on other group members to return the favor on nights when it goes hungry wilkinson 1984 marc bekoff and jessica pierce 2009 have argued that morality is a suite of behavioral capacities likely shared by all mammals living in complex social groups e g wolves coyotes elephants dolphins rats chimpanzees they define morality as a suite of interrelated other regarding behaviors that cultivate and regulate complex interactions within social groups this suite of behaviors includes empathy reciprocity altruism cooperation and a sense of fairness 44 in related work it has been convincingly demonstrated that chimpanzees show empathy for each other in a wide variety of contexts 45 they also possess the ability to engage in deception and a level of social politics 46 prototypical of our own tendencies for gossip and reputation management christopher boehm 1982 47 has hypothesized that the incremental development of moral complexity throughout hominid evolution was due to the increasing need to avoid disputes and injuries in moving to open savanna and developing stone weapons other theories are that increasing complexity was simply a correlate of increasing group size and brain size and in particular the development of theory of mind abilities genetics edit this section needs expansion you can help by adding missing information may 2022 moral intuitions may have genetic bases a 2022 study conducted by scholars michael zakharin and timothy c bates and published by the european journal of personality found that moral foundations have significant genetic bases 48 another study conducted by smith and hatemi similarly found significant evidence in support of moral heritability by looking at and comparing the answers of moral dilemmas between twins 49 genetics play a role in influencing prosocial behaviors and moral decision making genetics contribute to the development and expression of certain traits and behaviors including those related to morality while genetics play a role in shaping certain aspects of moral behavior morality itself is a multifaceted concept that encompasses cultural societal and personal influences as well psychology edit main article moral psychology see also kohlberg s stages of moral development and jean piaget education and development of morality kohlberg s model of moral development in modern moral psychology morality is sometimes considered to change through personal development several psychologists have produced theories on the development of morals usually going through stages of different morals lawrence kohlberg jean piaget and elliot turiel have cognitive developmental approaches to moral development to these theorists morality forms in a series of constructive stages or domains in the ethics of care approach established by carol gilligan moral development occurs in the context of caring mutually responsive relationships which are based on interdependence particularly in parenting but also in social relationships generally 50 social psychologists such as martin hoffman and jonathan haidt emphasize social and emotional development based on biology such as empathy moral identity theorists such as william damon and mordechai nisan see moral commitment as arising from the development of a self identity that is defined by moral purposes this moral self identity leads to a sense of responsibility to pursue such purposes of historical interest in psychology are the theories of psychoanalysts such as sigmund freud who believe that moral development is the product of aspects of the super ego as guilt shame avoidance theories of moral development therefore tend to regard it as positive moral development the higher stages are morally higher though this naturally involves a circular argument the higher stages are better because they are higher but the better higher because they are better as an alternative to viewing morality as an individual trait some sociologists as well as social and discursive psychologists have taken upon themselves to study the in vivo aspects of morality by examining how persons conduct themselves in so...
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