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of sensory experience and cognition 12 13 jiva a living being is the state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakṛti 14 human experience is an interplay of the two puruṣa being conscious of the various combinations of cognitive activities 14 the end of the bondage of puruṣa to prakṛti is called moksha liberation or kaivalya isolation 15 samkhya s epistemology accepts three of six pramaṇas proofs as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge as does yoga these are p ratyakṣa perception a numāṇa inference and śabda āptavacana meaning word testimony of reliable sources 16 17 18 sometimes described as one of the rationalist schools of indian philosophy it relies exclusively on reason 19 20 while samkhya like speculations can be found in the rig veda and some of the older upanishads some western scholars have proposed that samkhya may have non vedic origins 21 note 1 developing in ascetic milieus proto samkhya ideas developed c 8th 7th bc and onwards as evidenced in the middle upanishads the buddhacharita the bhagavad gita and the mokshadharma section of the mahabharata 22 it was related to the early ascetic traditions and meditation spiritual practices and religious cosmology 23 and methods of reasoning that result in liberating knowledge vidya jnana viveka that end the cycle of duḥkha suffering and rebirth 24 allowing for a great variety of philosophical formulations 23 pre karika systematic samkhya existed around the beginning of the first millennium ce 25 the defining method of samkhya was established with the samkhyakarika 4th c ce samkhya might have been theistic or nontheistic but with its classical systematization in the early first millennium ce the existence of a deity became irrelevant 26 27 28 29 samkhya is strongly related to the yoga school of hinduism for which it forms the theoretical foundation and it has influenced other schools of indian philosophy 30 etymology edit samkhya is not one of the systems of indian philosophy samkhya is the philosophy of india gopinath kaviraj 31 part of a series on hindu philosophy orthodox samkhya yoga nyaya vaisheshika mīmāṃsā vedanta heterodox charvaka ājīvika buddhism jainism ajñana sub schools smartist advaita vaishnavite bhedabheda vishishtadvaita dvaita shuddhadvaita achintya bheda abheda svabhavika bhedabheda mahanubhava ekasarana dharma akshar purushottam darshan shaivite shaiva siddhanta pratyabhijna panchartika pramanavada shakti vishishtadvaita shiva bhedabeda shiva advaita neo vedanta integral yoga acharyas teachers acharyas by school nyaya akṣapāda gotama jayanta bhatta raghunatha siromani mīmāṃsā jaimini kumārila bhaṭṭa prabhākara advaita mayavada gaudapada vāchaspati misra adi shankara vishishtadvaita ramanuja vedanta desika dvaita tattvavada madhvacharya jayatirtha vyasatirtha shuddhadvaita vallabha vitthalanatha gokulanatha achintya bheda abheda chaitanya mahaprabhu svabhavika bhedabheda nimbarka srinivasacharya purushottam keshav kashmiri harivyas devacharya mahanubhava chakradhara ekasarana dharma sankardev akshar purushottam darshan swaminarayan tantra shakta abhinavagupta nigamananda paramahansa ramprasad sen bamakhepa kamalakanta bhattacharya anandamayi ma neo vedanta vivekananda sri aurobindo radhakrishnan others samkhya kapila yoga patanjali vaisheshika kaṇāda prashastapada secular valluvar major texts śruti smṛti vedas rigveda yajurveda samaveda atharvaveda upanishads principal upanishads minor upanishads other scriptures bhagavad gita agama hinduism vachanamrut shastras and sutras brahma sutras samkhya sutras mimamsa sutras nyāya sūtras vaiśeṣika sūtra yoga sutras pramana sutras puranas dharmaśāstra arthashastra kama sutra naalayira divya prabandham tirumurai shiva samhita secular ethics kural hinduism other indian philosophies v t e sāṃkhya सांख्य or sāṅkhya also transliterated as samkhya and sankhya respectively is a sanskrit word that depending on the context means to reckon count enumerate calculate deliberate reason reasoning by numeric enumeration relating to number rational 32 in the context of ancient indian philosophies samkhya refers to the philosophical school in hinduism based on systematic enumeration and rational examination 33 the word samkhya means empirical or relating to numbers 34 although the term had been used in the general sense of metaphysical knowledge before 35 in technical usage it refers to the samkhya school of thought that evolved into a cohesive philosophical system in early centuries ce 36 the samkhya system is called so because it enumerates twenty five tattvas or true principles and its chief object is to effect the final emancipation of the twenty fifth tattva i e the puruṣa or soul 34 philosophy edit puruṣa and prakṛti edit samkhya makes a distinction between two irreducible innate and independent realities 37 puruṣa the witness consciousness and prakṛti matter the activities of mind and perception 4 38 39 according to dan lusthaus in sāṃkhya puruṣa signifies the observer the witness prakṛti includes all the cognitive moral psychological emotional sensorial and physical aspects of reality it is often mistranslated as matter or nature in non sāṃkhyan usage it does mean essential nature but that distracts from the heavy sāṃkhyan stress on prakṛti s cognitive mental psychological and sensorial activities moreover subtle and gross matter are its most derivative byproducts not its core only prakṛti acts 4 puruṣa is considered as the conscious principle a passive enjoyer bhokta and the prakṛti is the enjoyed bhogya samkhya believes that the puruṣa cannot be regarded as the source of inanimate world because an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world it is a pluralistic spiritualism atheistic realism and uncompromising dualism 40 puruṣa witness consciousness edit purusha prakriti puruṣa is the witness consciousness it is absolute independent free imperceptible unknowable through other agencies above any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations it remains pure nonattributive consciousness puruṣa is neither produced nor does it produce 5 no appellations can qualify puruṣa nor can it be substantialized or objectified 6 it cannot be reduced can t be settled any designation of puruṣa comes from prakṛti and is a limitation 7 unlike advaita vedanta and like purva mīmāṃsā samkhya believes in plurality of the puruṣas 5 however while being multiple puruṣas are considered non different because their essential attributes are the same 41 prakṛti cognitive processes edit elements in samkhya philosophy main article prakṛti prakṛti is the first cause of the world of our experiences 10 since it is the first principle tattva of the universe it is called the pradhāna chief principle but as it is the unconscious and unintelligent principle it is also called the jaḍa unintelligent it is composed of three essential characteristics triguna s these are sattva poise fineness lightness illumination and joy rajas dynamism activity excitation and pain tamas inertia coarseness heaviness obstruction and sloth 40 42 43 unmanifested prakṛti is infinite inactive and unconscious with the three gunas in a state of equilibrium when this equilibrium of the guṇas is disturbed then unmanifest prakṛti along with the omnipresent witness consciousness puruṣa gives rise to the manifest world of experience 12 13 prakṛti becomes manifest as twenty three tattvas 10 intellect buddhi mahat ego ahamkara mind manas the five sensory capacities the five action capacities and the five subtle elements or modes of sensory content tanmatras form rūpa sound shabda smell gandha taste rasa touch sparsha from which the five gross elements or forms of perceptual objects emerge earth prithivi water jala fire agni air vāyu ether ākāsha 44 11 prakṛti is the source of our experience it is not the evolution of a series of material entities but the emergence of experience itself 12 it is description of experience and the relations between its elements not an explanation of the origin of the universe 12 all prakṛti has these three guṇas in different proportions each guṇa is dominant at specific times of day the interplay of these guṇa defines the character of someone or something of nature and determines the progress of life 45 46 the samkhya theory of guṇa was widely discussed developed and refined by various schools of indian philosophies samkhya s philosophical treatises also influenced the development of various theories of hindu ethics 30 thought processes and mental events are conscious only to the extent they receive illumination from puruṣa in samkhya consciousness is compared to light which illuminates the material configurations or shapes assumed by the mind so intellect after receiving cognitive structures from the mind and illumination from pure consciousness creates thought structures that appear to be conscious 47 ahamkara the ego or the phenomenal self appropriates all mental experiences to itself and thus personalizes the objective activities of mind and intellect by assuming possession of them 48 but consciousness is itself independent of the thought structures it illuminates 47 liberation or mokṣa edit the supreme good is mokṣa which consists in the permanent impossibility of the incidence of pain in the realisation of the self as self pure and simple samkhyakarika i 3 49 samkhya school considers moksha as a natural quest of every jiva the samkhyakarika states as the unconscious milk functions for the sake of nourishment of the calf so the prakriti functions for the sake of moksha of the spirit samkhya karika verse 57 50 51 samkhya regards ignorance avidyā as the root cause of suffering and bondage samsara samkhya states that the way out of this suffering is through knowledge viveka mokṣa liberation states samkhya school results from knowing the difference between prakṛti avyakta vyakta and puruṣa jña 16 more specifically the puruṣa that has attained liberation is to be distinguished from a puruṣa that is still bound on account of the liberated puruṣa being free from its subtle body synonymous with buddhi in which is located the mental dispositions that individuates it and causes it to experience bondage 52 58 puruṣa the eternal pure consciousness due to ignorance identifies itself with products of prakṛti such as intellect buddhi and ego ahamkara this results in endless transmigration and suffering however once the realization arises that puruṣa is distinct from prakṛti is more than empirical ego and that puruṣa is deepest conscious self within the self gains isolation kaivalya and freedom moksha 53 though in conventional terms the bondage is ascribed to the puruṣa this is ultimately a mistake this is because the samkhya school samkhya karika verse 63 maintains that it is actually prakṛti that binds itself and thus bondage should in reality be ascribed to prakṛti not to the puruṣa 54 by seven modes nature binds herself by herself by one she releases herself for the soul s wish samkhya karika verse 63 vacaspati gave a metaphorical example to elaborate the position that the puruṣa is only mistakenly ascribed bondage although the king is ascribed victory or defeat it is actually the soldiers that experience it 55 it is then not merely that bondage is only mistakenly ascribed to the puruṣa but that liberation is like bondage wrongly ascribed to the puruṣa and should be ascribed to prakṛti alone 52 60 other forms of samkhya teach that mokṣa is attained by one s own development of the higher faculties of discrimination achieved by meditation and other yogic practices moksha is described by samkhya scholars as a state of liberation where sattva guṇa predominates 15 epistemology edit the samkhya school considers perception inference and reliable testimony as three reliable means to knowledge 16 17 samkhya considered pratyakṣa or dṛṣṭam direct sense perception anumāna inference and śabda or āptavacana verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras to be the only valid means of knowledge or pramana 16 unlike some other schools samkhya did not consider the following three pramanas to be epistemically proper upamāṇa comparison and analogy arthāpatti postulation deriving from circumstances or anupalabdi non perception negative cognitive proof 17 pratyakṣa प्रत्यक्ष means perception it is of two types in hindu texts external and internal external perception is described as that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects while internal perception is described by this school as that of inner sense the mind 56 57 the ancient and medieval indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception 58 indriyarthasannikarsa direct experience by one s sensory organ s with the object whatever is being studied avyapadesya non verbal correct perception is not through hearsay according to ancient indian scholars where one s sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else s perception avyabhicara does not wander correct perception does not change nor is it the result of deception because one s sensory organ or means of observation is drifting defective suspect and vyavasayatmaka definite correct perception excludes judgments of doubt either because of one s failure to observe all the details or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe or not observing what one does not want to observe 58 some ancient scholars proposed unusual perception as pramana and called it internal perception a proposal contested by other indian scholars the internal perception concepts included pratibha intuition samanyalaksanapratyaksa a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal and jnanalaksanapratyaksa a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a topic of study by observing its current state 59 further some schools considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from pratyakṣa pranama so as to contrast nirnaya definite judgment conclusion from anadhyavasaya indefinite judgment 60 anumāna अनुमान means inference it is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason 61 observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of anumana 56 in all except one hindu philosophies 62 this is a valid and useful means to knowledge the method of inference is explained by indian texts as consisting of three parts pratijna hypothesis hetu a reason and drshtanta examples 63 the hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts state the ancient indian scholars sadhya that idea which needs to proven or disproven and paksha the object on which the sadhya is predicated the inference is conditionally true if sapaksha positive examples as evidence are present and if vipaksha negative examples as counter evidence are absent for rigor the indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps for example they demand vyapti the requirement that the hetu reason must necessarily and separate...
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