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ach igniting more fusion fuel in the next stage 35 192 193 36 better source needed although this is debated finally efficient bombs but not so called neutron bombs end with the fissioning of the final natural uranium tamper something that could not normally be achieved without the neutron flux provided by the fusion reactions in secondary or tertiary stages such designs are suggested to be capable of being scaled up to an arbitrary large yield with apparently as many fusion stages as desired 35 192 193 36 better source needed potentially to the level of a doomsday device however usually such weapons were not more than a dozen megatons which was generally considered enough to destroy even the most hardened practical targets for example a control facility such as the cheyenne mountain complex even such large bombs have been replaced by smaller yield nuclear bunker buster bombs citation needed for destruction of cities and non hardened targets breaking the mass of a single missile payload down into smaller mirv bombs in order to spread the energy of the explosions into a pancake area is far more efficient in terms of area destruction per unit of bomb energy this also applies to single bombs deliverable by cruise missile or other system such as a bomber resulting in most operational warheads in the us program having yields of less than 500 kt 2 100 tj citation needed ivy mike edit in his 1995 book dark sun the making of the hydrogen bomb author richard rhodes describes in detail the internal components of the ivy mike sausage device based on information obtained from extensive interviews with the scientists and engineers who assembled it according to rhodes the actual mechanism for the compression of the secondary was a combination of the radiation pressure foam plasma pressure and tamper pusher ablation theories the radiation from the primary heated the polyethylene foam lining of the casing to a plasma which then re radiated radiation into the secondary s pusher causing its surface to ablate and driving it inwards compressing the secondary igniting the sparkplug and causing the fusion reaction the general applicability of this principle is unclear 24 ripple edit the ripple secondary is the cleanest largest fusion fraction and highest yield to weight ratio device tested it was tested during the 1962 operation dominic series unlike previous clean bombs which were clean simply by replacing the uranium 238 tamper with lead ripple was inherently clean the fission sparkplug was replaced by a large deuterium tritium gas core surrounded by a thinner lithium deuteride shell it is assumed that thin concentric shells of a high z material like lead driven by the small kinglet primary allowed propagated sustained shockwaves to the core sustaining the thermonuclear burn and giving the device its name the design was influenced by the nascent field of inertial confinement fusion ripple was also extremely efficient plans were made for a 15 kt kg shot androscoggin featured a proof of concept ripple design resulting in a 63 kiloton fizzle significantly lower than the predicted 15 megatons it was repeated in shot housatonic which featured a 9 96 megaton explosion that was reportedly 99 9 fusion while it was extremely lightweight the large amount of dt gas used made it a low density and thus high volume warhead among us icbms only the titan ii was wide enough to deliver it but the military had already shifted away from it towards the smaller minuteman missiles 18 w88 edit in 1999 a reporter for the san jose mercury news reported that the us w88 nuclear warhead a small mirved warhead used on the trident ii slbm had a prolate primary code named komodo and a spherical secondary code named cursa inside a specially shaped radiation case known as the peanut for its shape the value of an egg shaped primary lies apparently in the fact that a mirv warhead is limited by the diameter of the primary if an egg shaped primary can be made to work properly then the mirv warhead can be made considerably smaller yet still deliver a high yield explosion a w88 warhead manages to yield up to 475 kilotonnes of tnt 1 990 tj with a physics package 1 750 mm 68 9 in long with a maximum diameter of 550 mm 21 8 in and by different estimates weighing in a range from 175 to 360 kilograms 386 to 794 lb 37 the smaller warhead allows more of them to fit onto a single missile and improves basic flight properties such as speed and range 38 history edit main article history of the teller ulam design first tests edit first tests by nuclear weapon design country fission year boosted fission year multi stage year multi stage above one megaton year united states trinity 1945 item 1951 george 1951 ivy mike 1952 soviet union rds 1 1949 rds 6s 1953 rds 37 1955 rds 37 1955 united kingdom operation hurricane 1952 g1 1956 grapple 1 1957 grapple x 1957 france gerboise bleue 1960 rigel 1966 canopus 1968 canopus 1968 china 596 1964 596l 1966 629 1966 639 1967 india operation smiling buddha 1974 operation shakti questioned 1998 n a pakistan chagai i 1998 chagai i 1998 n a north korea 2 2009 4 unconfirmed 6 unconfirmed 2016 2017 israel see nuclear weapons of israel nuclear testing south africa see south africa and weapons of mass destruction nuclear weapons united states edit ivy mike first full scale thermonuclear test enewetak atoll november 1 1952 the idea of a thermonuclear fusion bomb ignited by a smaller fission bomb was first proposed by enrico fermi to his colleague edward teller when they were talking at columbia university in september 1941 24 207 at the start of what would become the manhattan project 5 teller spent much of the manhattan project attempting to figure out how to make the design work preferring it over work on the atomic bomb and over the last year of the project he was assigned exclusively to the task 24 117 248 however once world war ii ended there was little impetus to devote many resources to the super as it was then known 39 202 40 the first atomic bomb test by the soviet union in august 1949 came earlier than expected by americans and over the next several months there was an intense debate within the us government military and scientific communities regarding whether to proceed with development of the far more powerful super 41 1 2 the debate covered matters that were alternatively strategic pragmatic and moral 41 16 in their report of the general advisory committee robert oppenheimer fermi and colleagues warning of the civilian casualties inherent to its use characterized it as a weapon of genocide and concluded that t he extreme danger to mankind inherent in the proposal to develop thermonuclear weapons wholly outweighs any military advantage 42 despite the objections raised on 31 january 1950 president harry s truman made the decision to go forward with the development of the new weapon 39 212 214 operation castle thermonuclear test castle romeo shot teller and other us physicists struggled to find a workable design 41 91 92 stanislaw ulam a co worker of teller made the first key conceptual leaps towards a workable fusion design ulam s two innovations that rendered the fusion bomb practical were that compression of the thermonuclear fuel before extreme heating was a practical path towards the conditions needed for fusion and the idea of staging or placing a separate thermonuclear component outside a fission primary component and somehow using the primary to compress the secondary teller then realized that the gamma and x ray radiation produced in the primary could transfer enough energy into the secondary to create a successful implosion and fusion burn if the whole assembly was wrapped in a hohlraum or radiation case 5 the george shot of operation greenhouse of 9 may 1951 tested the basic concept for the first time on a very small scale as the first successful uncontrolled release of nuclear fusion energy which made up a small fraction of the 225 kt 940 tj total yield 43 it raised expectations to a near certainty that the concept would work on 1 november 1952 the teller ulam configuration was tested at full scale in the mike shot of operation ivy at an island in the enewetak atoll with a yield of 10 4 mt 44 pj over 450 times more powerful than the bomb dropped on nagasaki during world war ii the device dubbed the sausage was created by richard garwin assigned this task by edward teller 44 45 46 this was not widely known until 2001 as his involvement was kept secret 47 it used an extra large fission bomb as a trigger and liquid deuterium kept in its liquid state by 20 short tons 18 t of cryogenic equipment as its fusion fuel citation needed and weighed around 80 short tons 73 t altogether the liquid deuterium fuel of ivy mike was impractical for a deployable weapon and the next advance was to use a solid lithium deuteride fusion fuel instead in 1954 this was tested in the castle bravo shot the device was code named shrimp which had a yield of 15 mt 63 pj 2 5 times what was expected and is the largest us bomb ever tested efforts shifted towards developing miniaturized teller ulam weapons that could fit into intercontinental ballistic missiles and submarine launched ballistic missiles by 1960 with the w47 warhead 48 deployed on polaris ballistic missile submarines megaton class warheads were as small as 460 mm 18 in in diameter and 330 kilograms 720 lb in weight further innovation in miniaturizing warheads was accomplished by the mid 1970s when versions of the teller ulam design were created that could fit ten or more warheads on the end of a small mirved missile 20 soviet union edit see also rds 37 and soviet atomic bomb project this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed october 2022 learn how and when to remove this message casing of the soviet tsar bomba the largest nuclear weapon ever built and tested sarov russia the first soviet fusion design developed by andrei sakharov and vitaly ginzburg in 1949 before the soviets had a working fission bomb was dubbed the sloika after a russian layer cake and was not of the teller ulam configuration it used alternating layers of fissile material and lithium deuteride fusion fuel spiked with tritium this was later dubbed sakharov s first idea though nuclear fusion might have been technically achievable it did not have the scaling property of a staged weapon thus such a design could not produce thermonuclear weapons whose explosive yields could be made arbitrarily large unlike us designs at that time the fusion layer wrapped around the fission core could only moderately multiply the fission energy modern teller ulam designs can multiply it 30 fold additionally the whole fusion stage had to be imploded by conventional explosives along with the fission core substantially increasing the amount of chemical explosives needed the first sloika design test rds 6s was detonated in 1953 with a yield equivalent to 400 kt 1 700 tj 15 20 of which was from fusion attempts to use a sloika design to achieve megaton range results proved unfeasible after the united states tested the ivy mike thermonuclear device in november 1952 proving that a multimegaton bomb could be created the soviets searched for an alternative design the second idea as sakharov referred to it in his memoirs was a previous proposal by ginzburg in november 1948 to use lithium deuteride in the bomb which would in the course of being bombarded by neutrons produce tritium and free deuterium 49 299 in late 1953 physicist viktor davidenko achieved the first breakthrough of staging the reactions the next breakthrough of radiation implosion was discovered and developed by sakharov and yakov zel dovich in early 1954 sakharov s third idea as the teller ulam design was known in the ussr was tested in the shot rds 37 in november 1955 with a yield of 1 6 mt 6 7 pj the soviets demonstrated the power of the staging concept in october 1961 when they detonated the massive and unwieldy tsar bomba it was the largest nuclear weapon developed and tested by any country united kingdom edit operation grapple on christmas island was the first british hydrogen bomb test in 1954 work began at aldermaston on the british hydrogen bomb programme with sir william penney in charge of the project british knowledge on how to make a thermonuclear fusion bomb was rudimentary and at the time the united states was not exchanging any nuclear knowledge because of the atomic energy act of 1946 the united kingdom had worked closely with the americans on the manhattan project british access to nuclear weapons information was cut off by the united states at one point due to concerns about soviet espionage full cooperation was not reestablished until an agreement governing the handling of secret information and other issues was signed 50 unreliable source however the british were allowed to observe the us castle tests and used sampling aircraft in the mushroom clouds providing them with clear direct evidence of the compression produced in the secondary stages by radiation implosion 50 because of these difficulties in 1955 prime minister anthony eden agreed to a secret plan whereby if the aldermaston scientists failed or were greatly delayed in developing the fusion bomb it would be replaced by an extremely large fission bomb 50 in 1957 the operation grapple tests were carried out the first test green granite was a prototype fusion bomb that failed to produce equivalent yields compared to the us and soviets achieving only approximately 300 kt 1 300 tj the second test orange herald was the modified fission bomb and produced 720 kt 3 000 tj making it the largest fission explosion ever at the time almost everyone including the pilots of the plane that dropped it thought that this was a fusion bomb this bomb was put into service in 1958 a second prototype fusion bomb purple granite was used in the third test but only produced approximately 150 kt 630 tj 50 a second set of tests was scheduled with testing recommencing in september 1957 the first test was based on a new simpler design a two stage thermonuclear bomb that had a much more powerful trigger this test grapple x round c was exploded on 8 november and yielded approximately 1 8 mt 7 5 pj on 28 april 1958 a bomb was dropped that yielded 3 mt 13 pj britain s most powerful test two final air burst tests on 2 and 11 september 1958 dropped smaller bombs that yielded around 1 mt 4 2 pj each 50 american observers had been invited to these kinds of tests after britain s successful detonation of a megaton range device and thus demonstrating a practical understanding of the teller ulam design secret the united states agreed to exchange some of its nuclear designs with the united kingdom leading to the 1958 us uk mutual defence agreement instead of continuing with its own design the british were given access to the design of the smaller america...
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