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idebar hide navigation main page contents current events random article about wikipedia contact us contribute help learn to edit community portal recent changes upload file special pages search search appearance donate create account log in personal tools donate create account log in contents move to sidebar hide top 1 history 2 observational tests toggle observational tests subsection 2 1 counts of radio sources 2 2 x ray background 2 3 cosmic microwave background 3 quasi steady state 4 references 5 further reading toggle the table of contents steady state model 43 languages العربية български català čeština dansk deutsch ελληνικά español eesti euskara فارسی suomi français עברית हिन्दी hrvatski kreyòl ayisyen bahasa indonesia italiano 日本語 қазақша 한국어 മലയാളം मराठी nederlands norsk nynorsk norsk bokmål polski پنجابی português română русский srpskohrvatski српскохрватски simple english slovenčina slovenščina српски srpski svenska türkçe татарча tatarça українська اردو 中文 edit links article talk english read edit view history tools tools move to sidebar hide actions read edit view history general what links here related changes upload file permanent link page information cite this page get shortened url switch to legacy parser print export download as pdf printable version in other projects wikidata item appearance move to sidebar hide from wikipedia the free encyclopedia redirected from steady state theory model of the universe alternative to the big bang model this article is about the cosmological theory for other uses see steady state disambiguation continuous creation redirects here for the christian theological concept creatio continuans see divine conservation part of a series on physical cosmology big bang universe age of the universe chronology of the universe early universe inflation baryogenesis nucleosynthesis backgrounds gravitational wave gwb microwave cmb neutrino cnb expansion and future hubble s law redshift expansion of the universe flrw metric friedmann equations lambda cdm model future of an expanding universe ultimate fate of the universe components and structure components dark energy dark matter photons baryons structure shape of the universe galaxy filament galaxy formation large quasar group large scale structure reionization structure formation experiments black hole initiative bhi boomerang cosmic background explorer cobe dark energy survey planck space observatory sloan digital sky survey sdss 2df galaxy redshift survey 2df wilkinson microwave anisotropy probe wmap scientists aaronson alfvén alpher copernicus de sitter dicke ehlers einstein ellis friedmann galileo gamow guth hawking hubble huygens kepler lemaître mather newton penrose penzias rubin schmidt smoot suntzeff sunyaev tolman wilson zeldovich list of cosmologists subject history discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation history of the big bang theory timeline of cosmological theories category astronomy portal v t e in the big bang the expanding universe causes matter to dilute over time while in the steady state theory continued matter creation ensures that the density remains constant over time in cosmology the steady state model or steady state theory was an alternative to the big bang theory in the steady state model the density of matter in the expanding universe remains unchanged due to a continuous creation of matter thus adhering to the perfect cosmological principle a principle that says that the observable universe is always the same at any time and any place a static universe where space is not expanding also obeys the perfect cosmological principle but it cannot explain astronomical observations consistent with expansion of space from the 1940s to the 1960s the astrophysical community was divided between supporters of the big bang theory and supporters of the steady state theory the steady state model is now rejected by most cosmologists astrophysicists and astronomers 1 the observational evidence points to a hot big bang cosmology with a finite age of the universe which the steady state model does not predict 2 history edit cosmological expansion was originally seen through observations by edwin hubble theoretical calculations also showed that the static universe as modeled by albert einstein 1917 was unstable the modern big bang theory first advanced by father georges lemaître is one in which the universe has a finite age and has evolved over time through cooling expansion and the formation of structures through gravitational collapse on the other hand the steady state model says while the universe is expanding it nevertheless does not change its appearance over time the perfect cosmological principle in this model the universe has no beginning and no end this required that matter be continually created in order to keep the universe s density from decreasing influential papers on the topic of a steady state cosmology were published by hermann bondi thomas gold and fred hoyle in 1948 3 4 similar models had been proposed earlier by william duncan macmillan among others 5 albert einstein considered a steady state model of the expanding universe as indicated in a 1931 manuscript many years before hoyle bondi and gold but abandoned the idea 6 observational tests edit counts of radio sources edit see also source counts problems with the steady state model began to emerge in the 1950s and 1960s observations supported the idea that the universe was changing bright radio sources quasars and radio galaxies were found only at large distances therefore could have existed only in the distant past due to the effects of the speed of light on astronomy not in closer galaxies whereas the big bang theory predicted as much the steady state model predicted that such objects would be found throughout the universe including close to our own galaxy by 1961 statistical tests based on radio source surveys 7 provided strong evidence against the steady state model some proponents like halton arp insisted that the radio data were suspect 1 384 x ray background edit gold and hoyle 1959 8 considered that matter that is newly created exists in a region that is denser than the average density of the universe this matter then may radiate and cool faster than the surrounding regions resulting in a pressure gradient this gradient would push matter into an over dense region and result in a thermal instability and emit a large amount of plasma however gould and burbidge 1963 9 realized that the thermal bremsstrahlung radiation emitted by such a plasma would exceed the amount of observed x rays therefore in the steady state cosmological model thermal instability does not appear to be important in the formation of galaxy sized masses 10 cosmic microwave background edit in 1964 the cosmic microwave background radiation was discovered as predicted by the big bang theory the steady state model attempted to explain the microwave background radiation as the result of light from ancient stars that has been scattered by galactic dust however the cosmic microwave background level is very even in all directions making it difficult to explain how it could be generated by numerous point sources and the microwave background radiation does not show the polarization characteristic of scattering furthermore its spectrum is so close to that of an ideal black body that it could hardly be formed by the superposition of contributions from a multitude of dust clumps at different temperatures as well as at different redshifts steven weinberg wrote in 1972 the steady state model does not appear to agree with the observed d l versus z relation or with source counts in a sense this disagreement is a credit to the model alone among all cosmologies the steady state model makes such definite predictions that it can be disproved even with the limited observational evidence at our disposal the steady state model is so attractive that many of its adherents still retain hope that the evidence against it will eventually disappear as observations improve however if the cosmic microwave radiation is really black body radiation it will be difficult to doubt that the universe has evolved from a hotter denser early stage 11 since this discovery the big bang theory has been considered to provide the best explanation of the origin of the universe in most astrophysical publications the big bang is implicitly accepted and is used as the basis of more complete theories 12 388 quasi steady state edit quasi steady state cosmology qss was proposed in 1993 by fred hoyle geoffrey burbidge and jayant v narlikar as a new incarnation of the steady state ideas meant to explain additional features unaccounted for in the initial proposal the model suggests pockets of creation occurring over time within the universe sometimes referred to as minibangs mini creation events or little bangs 13 after the observation of an accelerating universe further modifications of the model were made 14 the planck particle is a hypothetical black hole whose schwarzschild radius is approximately the same as its compton wavelength the evaporation of such a particle has been evoked as the source of light elements in an expanding steady state universe 15 astrophysicist and cosmologist ned wright has pointed out flaws in the model 16 these first comments were soon rebutted by the proponents 17 wright and other mainstream cosmologists reviewing qss have pointed out new flaws and discrepancies with observations left unexplained by proponents 18 references edit 1 2 kragh helge 1999 cosmology and controversy the historical development of two theories of the universe princeton university press isbn 978 0 691 02623 7 steady state theory bbc retrieved january 11 2015 t he steady state theorists ideas are largely discredited today bondi hermann gold thomas 1948 the steady state theory of the expanding universe monthly notices of the royal astronomical society 108 3 252 bibcode 1948mnras 108 252b doi 10 1093 mnras 108 3 252 hoyle fred 1948 a new model for the expanding universe monthly notices of the royal astronomical society 108 5 372 bibcode 1948mnras 108 372h doi 10 1093 mnras 108 5 372 kragh helge 2019 steady state theory and the cosmological controversy in kragh helge ed the oxford handbook of the history of modern cosmology pp 161 205 doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780198817666 013 5 isbn 978 0 19 881766 6 the chicago astronomer william macmillan not only assumed that stars and galaxies were distributed uniformly throughout infinite space he also denied that the universe as a whole has ever been or ever will be essentially different from what it is today castelvecchi davide 2014 einstein s lost theory uncovered nature 506 7489 418 419 bibcode 2014natur 506 418c doi 10 1038 506418a pmid 24572403 ryle and clarke an examination of the steady state model in the light of some recent observations of radio sources mnraw 122 1961 349 gold t hoyle f 1 january 1959 cosmic rays and radio waves as manifestations of a hot universe ursi symp 1 paris symposium on radio astronomy 9 9 583 bibcode 1959iaus 9 583g gould r j burbidge g r 1 november 1963 x rays from the galactic center external galaxies and the intergalactic medium the astrophysical journal 138 969 bibcode 1963apj 138 969g doi 10 1086 147698 issn 0004 637x peebles p j e 2022 cosmology s century an inside history of our modern understanding of the universe princeton oxford princeton university press isbn 9780691196022 weinberg steven 1972 gravitation and cosmology john whitney sons pp 463 464 isbn 978 0 471 92567 5 kragh helge 1996 12 31 chapter 7 from controversy to marginalization cosmology and controversy princeton university press pp 318 388 doi 10 1515 9780691227719 008 isbn 978 0 691 22771 9 hoyle f burbidge g narlikar j v 1993 a quasi steady state cosmological model with creation of matter the astrophysical journal 410 437 457 bibcode 1993apj 410 437h doi 10 1086 172761 hoyle f burbidge g narlikar j v 1994 astrophysical deductions from the quasi steady state cosmology monthly notices of the royal astronomical society 267 4 1007 1019 bibcode 1994mnras 267 1007h doi 10 1093 mnras 267 4 1007 hdl 11007 1133 hoyle f burbidge g narlikar j v 1994 astrophysical deductions from the quasi steady state erratum monthly notices of the royal astronomical society 269 4 1152 bibcode 1994mnras 269 1152h doi 10 1093 mnras 269 4 1152 hoyle f burbidge g narlikar j v 1994 further astrophysical quantities expected in a quasi steady state universe astronomy and astrophysics 289 3 729 739 bibcode 1994a a 289 729h hoyle f burbidge g narlikar j v 1995 the basic theory underlying the quasi steady state cosmological model proceedings of the royal society a 448 1933 191 bibcode 1995rspsa 448 191h doi 10 1098 rspa 1995 0012 s2cid 53449963 narlikar j v vishwakarma r g burbidge g 2002 interpretations of the accelerating universe publications of the astronomical society of the pacific 114 800 1092 1096 arxiv astro ph 0205064 bibcode 2002pasp 114 1092n doi 10 1086 342374 s2cid 15456774 hoyle f 1993 light element synthesis in planck fireballs astrophysics and space science 198 2 177 193 doi 10 1007 bf00644753 s2cid 121245869 wright e l 1994 comments on the quasi steady state cosmology monthly notices of the royal astronomical society 276 4 1421 arxiv astro ph 9410070 bibcode 1995mnras 276 1421w doi 10 1093 mnras 276 4 1421 s2cid 118904109 hoyle f burbidge g narlikar j v 1994 note on a comment by edward l wright arxiv astro ph 9412045 wright e l 20 december 2010 errors in the steady state and quasi ss models ucla physics astronomy department further reading edit burbidge g hoyle f the origin of helium and the other light elements the astrophysical journal 509 l1 l3 10 december 1998 hoyle f burbidge g narlikar j v 2000 a different approach to cosmology cambridge university press isbn 978 0 521 66223 9 mitton s 2005 conflict in the cosmos fred hoyle s life in science joseph henry press isbn 978 0 309 09313 2 mitton s 2005 fred hoyle a life in science aurum press isbn 978 1 85410 961 3 narlikar jayant burbidge geoffrey 2008 facts and speculations in cosmology cambridge university press isbn 978 0 521 86504 3 portals physics astronomy stars outer space retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title steady state_model oldid 1332587135 categories physical cosmology obsolete theories in physics cosmogony 1948 in science fred hoyle hidden categories articles with short description short description is different from wikidata pages using sidebar with the child parameter this page was last edited on 12 january 2026 at 18 11 utc page was rendered with parsoid text is available under the creative commons attribution sharealike 4 0 license additional terms may apply by using this site you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy wikipedia is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation inc a non profit organization privacy policy about wikipedia disclaimers contact 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