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tal it is foundational to the qur an s meaning making for instance the qur an s depiction of allah as rabb al ʿalamīn lord of the world dwellers resonates with the biblical notion of god as sovereign over creation yet the qur an subtly shifts the emphasis from cosmic abstraction to relational immediacy allah is not only the lord of the heavens and the earth but also rabbuka your lord addressing the prophet muhammad directly this dual register that is both universal and intimate is a hallmark of qur anic theology and reflects its dialogical engagement with earlier scriptures similarly the qur an s use of anthropomorphic language allah s face hands and coming on the day of judgment echoes biblical and rabbinic imagery however the qur an reframes these motifs within its own theological grammar often emphasizing divine transcendence while retaining the possibility of eschatological encounter the promise that the righteous will gaze upon their lord q 75 22 23 evokes the beatific vision in christian eschatology but is articulated in qur anic terms that resist full assimilation to prior models allah and the dynamics of revelation the qur an presents itself as the speech of allah revealed through the prophet muhammad this self referentiality is not merely a claim to authority it is a performative act that situates allah as both speaker and subject phrases such as tanzīl min rabb al ʿālamīn a sending down from the lord of the world dwellers and bi smi rabbika in the name of your lord frame the qur an as a divine address that is both transcendent and historically situated here again intertextuality plays a crucial role the qur an s rhetoric of revelation draws on biblical models of prophetic speech yet it reconfigures them to suit its own theological and literary aims the qur an s emphasis on oral proclamation its use of formulaic expressions and its staging of polemical exchanges all reflect a complex interplay between inherited traditions and innovative composition theological implications of intertextuality understanding allah in the qur an requires attention not only to what the text says but to how it says it and to what it assumes its audience already knows the qur an often presupposes familiarity with biblical narratives theological categories and liturgical practices its concept of allah is thus not constructed in isolation but through a process of selective appropriation and rearticulation this has significant implications for qur anic hermeneutics as sinai argues the qur an s intertextuality is not a matter of source hunting but of semantic and theological resonance the qur an does not merely borrow it transforms its concept of allah is shaped by this transformative engagement which allows it to speak simultaneously to continuity and rupture tradition and innovation moreover the qur an s intertextuality serves a pedagogical function by invoking and reworking familiar motifs the text invites its audience into a process of theological reflection the concept of allah emerges not as a static doctrine but as a dynamic discourse that unfolds through narrative exhortation and polemic conclusion intertextual theology as method to grasp the qur an s concept of allah is to engage in intertextual theology this means reading the qur an not only as a self contained text but as part of a broader scriptural and cultural conversation sinai s scholarship provides the tools for such a reading combining philological precision with historical sensitivity in this light allah is not merely the subject of qur anic theology but its organizing principle the qur an s discourse on allah integrates creation revelation judgment and mercy into a coherent theological vision yet this vision is intelligible only when situated within the intertextual matrix that the qur an both inherits and reshapes the study of allah in the qur an therefore is not only a theological inquiry but a methodological imperative it calls for an approach that is historically grounded philologically rigorous and attuned to the dialogical nature of scripture in doing so it opens up new vistas for understanding the qur an s message and its place within the religious imagination of late antiquity adis duderija is an associate professor in islam and society and griffith university and a book series editor of a new book series on islam and process relational thought routledge url https www newageislam com debating islam allah quran intertextuality architecture divine d 137346 new age islam islam online islamic website african muslim news arab world news south asia news indian muslim news world muslim news women in islam islamic feminism arab women women in arab islamophobia in america muslim women in west islam women and feminism posted by moderate islamist here at 8 54 am no comments email this blogthis share to x share to facebook share to pinterest muhibbullah bihari s musallamus sabut re rooting wahdat al wujūd in indo islamic tradition with metaphysical defence of non duality by ghulam rasool dehlvi new age islam 22 october 2025 note this essay is inspired by the forthcoming phd thesis on the manuscript of musallamus sabut the celebrated work of the eminent 17th 18th century indian scholar of theology philosophy and metaphysics allama muhibbullah bihari this book is among the few renowned works of indian islam that gained equal recognition and acceptance throughout the arab and islamic worlds every sentence of this work is a cradle of knowledge and wisdom offering answers to the pressing intellectual questions of the present age the phd thesis submitted by dr manzarul islam azhari is in the offfing and is expected to be out in the next few months main points 1 defence of wahdat al wujūd unity of being shaykh muhibbullah bihari s musallamus sabut is a profound metaphysical defense of ibn al ʿarabi s doctrine of wahdat al wujūd that all existence is but a manifestation of the one divine reality al ḥaqq he rationally argues that multiplicity has no independent existence apart from god s self disclosure tajallī 2 synthesis of reason revelation and mysticism the treatise bridges ʿilm al kalām islamic theology philosophy falsafa and sufism tasawwuf demonstrating that intellectual reasoning and qur anic revelation complement each other it upholds rational inquiry burhan as a means to deepen divine understanding rather than oppose revelation 3 refutation of dualism and anthropomorphism muhibbullah rejects the rigid separation between creator and creation promoted by literalist theologians using qur anic reasoning he affirms that all beings are dependent reflections of the divine essence god transcends yet pervades creation making his view panentheistic not pantheistic 4 doctrine of tajallī and human perfection central to the work is tajallī divine self manifestation through creation every being mirrors god s names and attributes and the insān kāmil perfect human reflects them most completely this vision leads to spiritual humility compassion and iḥsān seeing god in all things 5 intellectual legacy and indo islamic significance musallamus sabut influenced later sufis like shah waliullah dehlawi and served as a philosophical counterweight to the naqshbandi mujaddidi critique of wahdat al wujūd preserved in libraries across india it remains an underexplored masterpiece that epitomizes the rational mystical synthesis of indo islamic metaphysics first page of the manuscript musallamus sabut introduction an erudite scholar friend of this writer dr manzarul islam azhari has recently submitted his phd thesis with an annotation on the remarkable work musallamus sabut the established proofs by shaykh muhibbullah bihari d ca 1648 ce major indo islamic thinker of the chishti sabiri silsila and a disciple of shaykh ʿabd al rahman chishti known for his deep engagement with ibn al ʿarabi shaykh bihari s musallamus sabut and especially his defence of wahdat al wujūd based on extant scholarly interpretations is truly insightful i had a brief exposure to the various letters and sufi discourses makātīb reflecting his mystical thought thanks to dr manzar ul islam saheb a magnum opus on ilm al kalām islamic theology one that bridges the rationalist tradition of scholastic theology with the illuminative metaphysics of sufism it is one of the most remarkable yet underexplored works of indian sufi metaphysics written in eloquent arabic during the mughal period this treatise represents a profound defence of the doctrine of wahdat al wujūd the unity of being as articulated by ibn al ʿarabi and developed within the chishti sabiri tradition through a synthesis of qur anic revelation rational argument and mystical insight shaykh bihari demonstrates that only divine presence truly exists while all creation is but his self manifestation tajallī this essay explores the key arguments philosophical methods and enduring legacy of musallamus sabut within indo islamic intellectual tradition in an era when speculative philosophy falsafa and rational theology ilm al kalām are losing ground to juristic literalism in the indian madrasas we need to revitalize muhibbullah bihari s epistemology of usul ud deen and metaphysical kalām methodology as a living discipline his musallamus sabut reasserts the intellectual legitimacy of reasoning in matters of divine knowledge not as an alternative to revelation but as its inner unfolding shaykh bihāri and his intellectual milieu shaykh muhibbullah of bihār d 1058 ah 1648 ce stands among the foremost metaphysical thinkers of the indian sufi tradition a master of the chishti sabiri silsila he was a disciple of shaykh ʿabd al raḥmān chishti and a contemporary of emperor shah jahan his spiritual circle in allahabad then known as ilahabad became a centre of both sufi devotion and philosophical discourse muhibbullah s intellectual project reflects the mature indo sufi attempt to reconcile the theological orthodoxy of the qur an with the metaphysical depth of ibn al ʿarabi s theosophy he authored several works most notably musallamus sabut sharḥʿayn al yaḳīn and risālah fī al wujūd all of which revolve around the ontology of being wujūd his writings mark a shift from ecstatic mystical expression toward a more rationalized scholastic sufism a trend that matured in mughal india alongside figures like ʿabd al ḥaqq muḥaddith dehlawi and mulla ʿabd al ḥakīm sialkoti musallamus sabut the meaning and magnificence the title musallamus sabut is roughly rendered as the soundly established proofs the treatise was written to affirm the ontological and rational soundness taḥqīq of the doctrine of wahdat al wujūd that all existence is a manifestation of the one reality al ḥaqq and that multiplicity has no independent being while ibn al ʿarabi had expounded this doctrine primarily through mystical intuition muhibbullah sought to ground it in philosophical reasoning and qur anic exegesis thus musallamus sabut stands as a defense of mystical monism against the charges of pantheism levelled by certain orthodox scholars of his time especially those aligned with the naqshbandi mujaddidi school who promoted wahdat al shuhūd unity of witnessing as an alternative to wahdat al wujūd the oneness of existence the text presents a systematic exposition of the doctrine of unity tawḥīd with rational and scriptural arguments defending the mystical view of wahdat al wujūd musallamus sabut waw lately part of the madrasas curriculum called dars e nizami it had become an important text in indo muslim metaphysical discourse especially among sufis and scholars defending wahdat al wujūd against the reformist critiques of the 17th 18th centuries it influenced later indian thinkers such as shah waliullah dehlawi who engaged deeply with the same metaphysical ideas the book s arguments were also cited by scholars like ʿabd al ḥaqq muḥaddith dehlawi and ʿabd al ra ūf al muniri in their sufi writings main themes and doctrines 1 unity of being wahdat al wujūd muhibbullah defends ibn al ʿarabi s view that all multiplicity emanates from a single divine reality not as pantheism but as theophany manifestation of god s names and attributes 2 relationship between the creator and creation he uses philosophical terminology to explain that existence wujūd truly belongs only to allah all other beings are reflections of that absolute existence 3 refutation of dualism and anthropomorphism the book argues against the literalist and dualist interpretations of god s attributes offering instead a sufi metaphysical reading of qur anic verses 4 proofs and rational demonstrations as the title suggests the treatise uses rational proofs burhan to establish the mystical truths bridging the gap between philosophy falsafa and sufism tasawwuf 5 ontological argument the real as the only existence everything upon it the earth will perish and there will remain only the face of your lord qur an 55 26 27 from this he concludes that all contingent beings mumkināt are dependent upon the necessary being wājib al wujūd dependence implies non reality in themselves their existence is nothing but the self disclosure tajallī of the real being he writes the real al ḥaqq is being itself all else is his shadow ẓill and reflection were the light of the real withdrawn nothing of the cosmos would remain perceptible this analogy light and shadow is central to his argument multiplicity exists only as the mode of manifestation not as a separate ontological principle hence creation is not other than god but rather god s own appearance in diverse forms the epistemology of being seeing unity in multiplicity shaykh muhibbullah bihari devotes considerable attention to how human knowledge perceives existence drawing upon the qur anic verse whithersoever you turn there is the face of allah 2 115 he asserts that all perception whether sensory or intellectual is in truth a perception of the one being manifesting through finite forms he distinguishes between conceptual multiplicity taʿaddud dhihnī which arises from mental abstraction and ontological unity waḥdat wujūdī which pertains to the real itself the world therefore is not an illusion maya in the sense of complete unreality but a relative reality ḥaqīqat iḍāfiyyah whose being is entirely dependent upon the divine being this subtle distinction shows how muhibbullah engages indian philosophical ideas indirectly while maintaining qur anic monotheism rational proofs burāhīn for unity of being the treatise presents three levels of argumentation metaphysical proof every possible being mumkin al wujūd cannot exist by itself it requires a necessary being wājib al wujūd therefore contingent beings have no independent reality only the necessary being truly is epistemological proof perception and cognition relate only to being not to non being hence all knowledge implicitly affirms the one existence that underlies phenomena scriptural proof verses such as he is the first and the last the outward and the inward 57 3 and there is nothing lik...
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