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in vertebrates contains a number of organs belonging to for instance the digestive system urinary system and muscular system contents edit main article abdominal cavity see also list of organs of the human body the abdominal cavity contains most organs of the digestive system including the stomach the small intestine and the colon with its attached appendix other digestive organs are known as the accessory digestive organs and include the liver its attached gallbladder and the pancreas and these communicate with the rest of the system via various ducts the spleen and organs of the urinary system including the kidneys and adrenal glands also lie within the abdomen along with many blood vessels including the aorta and inferior vena cava the urinary bladder uterus fallopian tubes and ovaries may be seen as either abdominal organs or as pelvic organs finally the abdomen contains an extensive membrane called the peritoneum a fold of peritoneum may completely cover certain organs whereas it may cover only one side of organs that usually lie closer to the abdominal wall this is called the retroperitoneum and the kidneys and ureters are known as retroperitoneal organs view of the various organs and blood vessels in proximity with liver the relations of the viscera and large vessels of the abdomen seen from behind muscles edit main article abdominal muscles henry gray 1825 1861 anatomy of the human body a male abdomen there are three layers of muscles in the abdominal wall they are from the outside to the inside external oblique internal oblique and transverse abdominal 4 the first three layers extend between the vertebral column the lower ribs the iliac crest and pubis of the hip all of their fibers merge towards the midline and surround the rectus abdominis in a sheath before joining up on the opposite side at the linea alba strength is gained by the criss crossing of fibers such that the external oblique runs downward and forward the internal oblique upward and forward and the transverse abdominal horizontally forward 4 the transverse abdominal muscle is flat and triangular with its fibers running horizontally it lies between the internal oblique and the underlying transverse fascia it originates from the inguinal ligament costal cartilages 7 12 the iliac crest and thoracolumbar fascia inserts into the conjoint tendon xiphoid process linea alba and the pubic crest the rectus abdominis muscles are long and flat the muscle is crossed by three fibrous bands called the tendinous intersections the rectus abdominis is enclosed in a thick sheath formed as described above by fibers from each of the three muscles of the lateral abdominal wall they originate at the pubis bone run up the abdomen on either side of the linea alba and insert into the cartilages of the fifth sixth and seventh ribs in the region of the groin the inguinal canal is a passage through the layers this gap is where the testes can drop through the wall and where the fibrous cord from the uterus in the female runs this is also where weakness can form and cause inguinal hernias 4 the pyramidalis muscle is small and triangular it is located in the lower abdomen in front of the rectus abdominis it originates at the pubic bone and is inserted into the linea alba halfway up to the navel function edit abdominal organs anatomy in an adult human male functionally the human abdomen is where most of the digestive tract is placed and so most of the absorption and digestion of food occurs here the alimentary tract in the abdomen consists of the lower esophagus the stomach the duodenum the jejunum ileum the cecum and the appendix the ascending transverse and descending colons the sigmoid colon and the rectum other vital organs inside the abdomen include the liver the kidneys the pancreas and the spleen the abdominal wall is split into the posterior back lateral sides and anterior front walls movement breathing and other functions edit the abdominal muscles have different important functions they assist as muscles of exhalation in the breathing process during forceful exhalation moreover these muscles serve as protection for the inner organs furthermore together with the back muscles they provide postural support and are important in defining the form when the glottis is closed and the thorax and pelvis are fixed they are integral in the cough urination defecation childbirth vomit and singing functions 4 when the pelvis is fixed they can initiate the movement of the trunk in a forward motion they also prevent hyperextension when the thorax is fixed they can pull up the pelvis and finally they can bend the vertebral column sideways and assist in the trunk s rotation 4 posture edit the transverse abdominis muscle is the deepest muscle therefore it cannot be touched from the outside it can greatly affect the body s posture the internal obliques are also deep and also affect body posture both of them are involved in rotation and lateral flexion of the spine and are used to bend and support the spine from the front the external obliques are more superficial and are also involved in rotation and lateral flexion of the spine they also stabilize the spine when upright the rectus abdominis muscle is not the most superficial abdominal muscle the tendonous sheath extending from the external obliques cover the rectus abdominis the rectus abdominis is the muscle that very fit people develop into six pack abs though there are five vertical sections on each side the two bottom sections are just above the pubic bone and usually not visible the rectus abdominals function is to bend one s back forward flexion the main work of the abdominal muscles is to bend the spine forward when contracting concentrically 5 society and culture edit see also midriff and navel in popular culture social and cultural perceptions of the outward appearance of the abdomen has varying significance around the world depending on the type of society excess weight can be perceived as an indicator of wealth and prestige due to excess food or as a sign of poor health due to lack of exercise in many cultures bare abdomens are distinctly sexualized and perceived similarly to breast cleavage exercise edit main article abdominal exercise the superman exercise involving balancing solely with the abdomen on a folded towel while raising the upper torso and pelvis off the floor with the limbs bent there are numerous variations 6 being key elements of spinal support and contributors to good posture it is important to properly exercise the abdominal muscles together with the back muscles because when these are weak or overly tight they can suffer painful spasms and injuries when properly exercised abdominal muscles contribute to improved posture and balance reduce the likelihood of back pain episodes reduce the severity of back pain 7 protect against injury 8 help avoid some back surgeries and help with the healing of back problems or after spine surgery when strengthened the abdominal muscles provide flexibility as well the abdominal muscles can be worked by strength and fitness exercises and through practicing disciplines of general body strength such as pilates 9 yoga 10 tai chi and jogging clinical significance edit abdominal obesity is a condition where abdominal fat or visceral fat has built up excessively between the abdominal organs this is associated with a higher risk of heart disease asthma and type 2 diabetes abdominal trauma is an injury to the abdomen and can involve damage to the abdominal organs there is an associated risk of severe blood loss and infection 11 injury to the lower chest can cause injuries to the spleen and liver 12 a scaphoid abdomen is when the abdomen is sucked inwards 13 in a newborn it may represent a diaphragmatic hernia 14 in general it is indicative of malnutrition 15 disease edit main article gastrointestinal disease many gastrointestinal diseases affect the abdominal organs these include stomach disease liver disease pancreatic disease gallbladder and bile duct disease intestinal diseases include enteritis coeliac disease diverticulitis and irritable bowel syndrome examination edit different medical procedures can be used to examine the organs of the gastrointestinal tract these include endoscopy colonoscopy sigmoidoscopy enteroscopy oesophagogastroduodenoscopy and virtual colonoscopy there are also a number of medical imaging techniques that can be used surface landmarks are important in the examination of the abdomen surface landmarks edit surface projections of the organs of the trunk from which organ locations are derived mainly from vertebra levels ribs and the ilium in the mid line a slight furrow extends from the xiphoid process above to the pubic symphysis below representing the linea alba in the abdominal wall at about its midpoint sits the umbilicus or navel the rectus abdominis on each side of the linea alba stands out in muscular people the outline of these muscles is interrupted by three or more transverse depressions indicating the tendinous intersections there is usually one about the xiphoid process one at the navel and one in between it is the combination of the linea alba and the tendinous intersections which form the abdominal six pack sought after by many people the upper lateral limit of the abdomen is the subcostal margin at or near the subcostal plane formed by the cartilages of the false ribs 8 9 10 joining one another the lower lateral limit is the anterior crest of the ilium and poupart s ligament which runs from the anterior superior spine of the ilium to the spine of the pubis these lower limits are marked by visible grooves just above the pubic spines on either side are the external abdominal rings which are openings in the muscular wall of the abdomen through which the spermatic cord emerges in the male and through which an inguinal hernia may rupture one method by which the location of the abdominal contents can be appreciated is to draw three horizontal and two vertical lines horizontal lines edit front of abdomen showing markings for duodenum pancreas and kidneys the highest of the former is the transpyloric line of c addison which is situated halfway between the suprasternal notch and the top of the pubic symphysis and often cuts the pyloric opening of the stomach an inch to the right of the mid line the hilum of each kidney is a little below it while its left end approximately touches the lower limit of the spleen it corresponds to the first lumbar vertebra behind the second line is the subcostal line drawn from the lowest point of the subcostal arch tenth rib it corresponds to the upper part of the third lumbar vertebra and it is an inch or so above the umbilicus it indicates roughly the transverse colon the lower ends of the kidneys and the upper limit of the transverse 3rd part of the duodenum the third line is called the intertubercular line and runs across between the two rough tubercles which can be felt on the outer lip of the crest of the ilium about two and a half inches 64 mm from the anterior superior spine this line corresponds to the body of the fifth lumbar vertebra and passes through or just above the ileo caecal valve where the small intestine joins the large intestine vertical lines edit the two vertical or mid poupart lines are drawn from the point midway between the anterior superior spine and the pubic symphysis on each side vertically upward to the costal margin the right one is the most valuable as the ileo caecal valve is situated where it cuts the intertubercular line the orifice of the appendix lies an inch lower at mcburney s point in its upper part the vertical line meets the transpyloric line at the lower margin of the ribs usually the ninth and here the gallbladder is situated the left mid poupart line corresponds in its upper three quarters to the inner edge of the descending colon the right subcostal margin corresponds to the lower limit of the liver while the right nipple is about half an inch above its upper limit quadrants and regions edit side by side comparison of quadrants and regions main article quadrants and regions of abdomen the abdomen can be divided into quadrants or regions to describe the location of an organ or structure classically quadrants are described as the left upper left lower right upper and right lower citation needed quadrants are also often used in describing the site of an abdominal pain 16 the abdomen can also be divided into nine regions right hypochondriac hypochondrium epigastric epigastrium left hypochondriac hypochondrium right lumbar flank latus lateral umbilical left lumbar flank latus lateral right inguinal iliac hypogastric supra pubic left inguinal iliac these terms stem from hypo meaning below and epi means above while chondron means cartilage in this case the cartilage of the rib and gaster means stomach the reversal of left and right is intentional because the anatomical designations reflect the patient s own right and left the right iliac fossa rif is a common site of pain and tenderness in patients who have appendicitis the fossa is named for the underlying iliac fossa of the hip bone and thus is somewhat imprecise most of the anatomical structures that will produce pain and tenderness in this region are not in fact in the concavity of the ileum however the term is in common usage across animal phyla and classes edit chordata edit further information chordata mammals edit see also mammal anatomy abdominal organs can be highly specialized in some mammals for example the stomach of ruminants a suborder of mammals that includes cattle and sheep is divided into four chambers rumen reticulum omasum and abomasum 17 arthropoda edit in arthropods the abdomen is built up of a series of upper plates known as tergites and lower plates known as sternites the whole being held together by a tough yet stretchable membrane insects edit the analogous gross morphologies of a human male and an ant in the worker ant the abdomen consists of the propodeum fused to the thorax and the metasoma itself divided into the narrow petiole and bulbous gaster in insects the abdomen contains the insect s digestive tract and reproductive organs it consists of eleven segments in most orders of insects though the eleventh segment is absent in the adult of most higher orders the number of these segments does vary from species to species with the number of segments visible reduced to only seven in the common honey bee in the collembola springtails the abdomen has only six segments the abdomen is sometimes highly modified in apocrita bees ants and wasps the first segment of the abdomen is fused to the thorax and is called the propodeum in ants the second segment forms the narrow petiole some ants have an additional postpetiole segment and the remaining segments form the bulbous gaster 18 the petiole and gaster abdominal segments 2 and onward are collectively called the metasoma unlike other arthropods insects posses...
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