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xt generation who were considered the first native speakers of the new grammar as a lingua franca it could effectively be classified as a creole language 8 10 no standard name for the language has existed historically in the language community members in various areas of louisiana and elsewhere have referred to it by many expressions though kréyol kréyòl has been the most widespread until the rise of cajunism in the 1970s and 80s many louisiana francophones also identified their language as créole since they self identified as louisiana creoles in louisiana s case self identity has determined how locals identify the language they speak this leads to linguistic confusion to remedy this language activists beginning in the 2010s began promoting the term kouri vini to avoid any linguistic ambiguity with louisiana french 1 the boundaries of historical louisiana were first shaped by the french then in statehood after 1812 took on its modern form by the time of the louisiana purchase by the u s in 1803 the boundaries came to include most of the central united states ranging from present day montana parts of north dakota wyoming colorado all of south dakota nebraska and kansas part of southeast texas all of oklahoma most of missouri and arkansas as well as louisiana 13 in 1978 researchers located a document from a murder trial in the colonial period that acknowledges the existence of louisiana creole 8 13 the documentation does not include any examples of orthography or structure 8 13 in an 1807 document a grammatical description of the language is included in the experiences of an enslaved woman recorded by c c robin this was prior to arrival in louisiana of french speaking colonists and enslaved africans from saint domingue the whites and free people of color also french speaking were refugees from the haitian revolution which had established the first empire in the western hemisphere the statements collected from robin showed linguistic features that are now known to be typical of louisiana creole 8 the term criollo creole appears in legal court documents during the spanish colonial period 1762 1803 the spanish reference to the language stated that it was used among enslaved people and whites 13 the importation of enslaved africans increased after france ceded the colony to spain in 1763 following france s defeat by great britain in the seven years war in europe 14 some spaniards immigrated to the colony but it was dominated by french language and culture like south carolina louisiana had a minority population of africans that greatly outnumbered the european settlers including those white creoles born in the colony 8 language shift endangerment and revitalization edit in the case of louisiana creole a diglossia resulted between louisiana creole and louisiana french michael picone a lexicographer proposed the term plantation society french to describe a version of french which he associated with plantation owners plantation overseers small landowners military officers soldiers and bilingual free people of color as being a contributor to louisiana creole s lexical base over the centuries louisiana creole s negative associations with slavery stigmatized the language to the point where many speakers are reluctant to use it for fear of ridicule in this way the assignment of high variety or h language was allotted to standard louisiana french and that of low variety or l language was given to louisiana creole and to louisiana french 15 the social status of louisiana creole further declined as a result of the louisiana purchase americans and their government made it illegal for francophones to speak their language in 1921 the state of louisiana mandated that public education take place in english only 16 children and adults were often punished by corporal punishment fines and social degradation by the 21st century other methods were enforced the promise of upward socioeconomic mobility and public shaming did the rest of the work prompting many speakers of louisiana creole to abandon their stigmatized language in favor of english 17 additionally the development of industry technology and infrastructure in louisiana reduced the isolation of louisiana creolophone communities and resulted in the arrival of more anglophones resulting in further exposure to english because of this louisiana creole exhibits more recent influence from english including loanwords code switching and syntactic calquing 18 19 20 today louisiana creole is spoken by fewer than 6 000 people 1 4 though national census data includes figures on language usage these are often unreliable in louisiana due to respondents tendencies to identify their language in line with their ethnic identity for example speakers of louisiana creole who identify as cajuns often label their language cajun french though on linguistic grounds their language would be considered louisiana creole 21 efforts to revitalize french in louisiana have placed emphasis on cajun french to the exclusion of creole 22 zydeco musician keith frank has made efforts through the use of social media not only to promote his music but to preserve his creole heritage and language as well most notably through the use of twitter additionally frank developed a mobile application in 2012 titled the zydecoboss app which acts as a miniature social network linked to a user s facebook and twitter accounts allowing users to provide commentary in real time amongst multiple platforms aside from social media activism frank also created a creole music festival in 2012 called the creole renaissance festival which acts a celebration of creole culture 23 a small number of community organizations focus on promoting louisiana creole for example creole inc 24 and the creole table founded by velma johnson 25 northwestern state university developed the creole heritage center designed to bring people of louisiana creole heritage together as well as preserve louisiana creole through their creole language documentation project 26 in addition there is an active online community of language learners and activists engaged in language revitalization led by language activist christophe landry 27 these efforts have resulted in the creation of a popular orthography 28 a digitalized version of valdman et al s louisiana creole dictionary 29 and a free spaced repetition course for learning vocabulary hosted on memrise created by a team led by adrien guillory chatman 30 a first language primer was released in 2017 31 32 and revised into a full length language guide and accompanying website in 2020 2 2022 saw the publication of an anthology of contemporary poetry in louisiana creole the first book written completely in the language 33 a december 2023 article in the economist highlighted revitalization efforts with the headline louisiana creole is enjoying a modest revival focusing in particular on language activists jourdan thibodeaux and taalib pierre auguste 16 geographic distribution edit speakers of louisiana creole are mainly concentrated in south and southwest louisiana st martin parish is the heart of the creole speaking region other sizeable communities exist along bayou têche in st landry avoyelles iberia and st mary parishes there are smaller communities on false river in pointe coupée parish in terrebonne parish and along the lower mississippi river in ascension st charles parish and st james and st john the baptist parishes 34 there once were creolophones in natchitoches parish on cane river and sizable creolophone communities in adjacent southeast texas beaumont houston port arthur galveston 13 35 and the chicago area natchitoches being the oldest colonial settlement in louisiana proved to be predominantly creole since its inception 36 native inhabitants of the local area louisiana creole speakers in california clarification needed reside in los angeles san diego and san bernardino counties and in northern california the san francisco bay area and sacramento plumas tehama mono and yuba counties 19 historically there were creole speaking communities in arkansas mississippi and alabama on mon louis island however it is likely that no speakers remain in these areas 37 phonology edit the phonology of louisiana creole has much in common with those of other french based creole languages in comparison to most of these languages however louisiana creole diverges less from the phonology of french in general and louisiana french in particular 38 this may be due to the language s strong tendency toward decreolization 39 consonants edit consonants of louisiana creole 40 19 20 labial alveolar postalveolar velar nasal m n ɲ ŋ plosive affricate voiceless p t tʃ k voiced b d dʒ ɡ fricative voiceless f s ʃ voiced v z ʒ tap ɾ lateral l the table above shows the consonant sounds of louisiana creole not including semivowels j and w in common with louisiana french louisiana creole features postalveolar affricates tʃ and dʒ as in tʃololo weak coffee and dʒɛl mouth the nasal palatal ɲ usually becomes nasal palatal approximant j̃ when between vowels which results in the preceding vowel becoming nasalized at the end of a word it typically is replaced by n or ŋ 40 vowels edit oral and nasal vowels of louisiana creole 40 19 20 front central back unrounded rounded close oral i y u close mid e ø o open mid ɛ œ ɔ nasal ɛ̃ œ̃ ɔ̃ open ɑ̃ oral a the table above shows the oral and nasal vowels of louisiana creole as identified by linguists 8 vowel rounding edit speakers of the language may use rounded vowels y ø and œ where they occur in french this is subject to a high degree of variation with the same region sociolinguistic group and even within the same speaker 20 19 41 examples of this process include diri duri diri dyri rice compare french du riz dyri vyé vye vje vjø old compare french vieux vjø djèl djœl dʒɛl dʒœl mouth compare louisiana french djeule dʒœl 29 vowel lowering edit the open mid vowel ɛ may be lowered to the near open vowel æ when followed by ɾ e g frè frær fɾɛ fɾæɾ brother 8 regressive and progressive vowel nasalization edit in common with louisiana french louisiana creole vowels are nasalized where they precede a nasal consonant e g jènn ʒɛ̃n young pomm pɔ̃m apple however unlike most varieties of louisiana french louisiana creole also exhibits progressive nasalization vowels following a nasal consonant are nasalized e g konnin kɔ̃nɛ̃ to know 42 grammar edit louisiana creole exhibits subject verb object svo word order 19 determiners edit in 19th century sources determiners in louisiana creole appear related to specificity bare nouns are non specific as for specific nouns if the noun is presupposed it took a definite determiner la singular la ye plural or by an indefinite determiner en singular de or ye plural today definite articles in louisiana creole vary between the le la and lê placed before the noun as in louisiana french and post positional definite determiners la for the singular and yé for the plural 40 this variation is but one example of the influence of louisiana french on louisiana creole especially in the variety spoken along the bayou têche which has been characterized by some linguists as decreolized though this notion is controversial 20 19 40 some speakers of that variety display a highly variable system of number and gender agreement as evidenced in possessive pronouns 41 personal pronouns edit 40 subject objective possessive 1st person mo mò mwin mô mâ sg fem mê pl 2nd person to twa tô tâ tê 3rd person li li sô sâ sê 1st plural nou no nouzòt nouzòt nou nô nouzòt 2nd plural vouzòt ouzòt zòt zo vouzòt zòt vouzòt 3rd plural yé yé yê possession is shown by noun noun possessum possessor constructions e g lamézon mô papa house of my grandfather or with the preposition a e g lamézon a mô papa house of my grandfather 40 verbs edit verbal morphology edit older forms of louisiana creole featured only one form of each verb without any inflection e g mɑ̃ʒe to eat today the language typically features two verb classes verbs with only a single form e g bwa bwɑ to drink and verbs with a long or short form e g manjé mɑ̃ʒe manj mɑ̃ʒ to eat 8 tense aspect mood edit like other creole languages louisiana creole features preverbal markers of tense aspect and mood as listed in the table below form classification meaning notes té anterior past state of adjectives and stative verbs pluperfect or habitual past of non stative verbs 42 apé ap é progressive ongoing actions form é is only used in pointe coupée 19 a va alé future future actions sa future states sé conditional actions or states which might take place bin remote past an action or state that began before and continued up to a subsequent point in time 19 likely a borrowing from african american english 41 vocabulary edit the vocabulary of louisiana creole is primarily of french origin as french is the language s lexifier some local vocabulary such as topography animals and plants are of american indian origin in the domains of folklore and voodoo the language has a small number of vocabulary items from west and central african languages 43 much of this non french vocabulary is shared with other french based creole languages of north america and louisiana creole shares all but a handful of its vocabulary with louisiana french 44 writing system edit louisiana creole has never had a standard universal orthography for example tʃwe to kill could variably be rendered tchué tchwé chwé and so on historically louisiana creole was often written in french based or pan creole orthographies the latter reminiscent of haitian creole writing in the most recent popular orthographic system described below the louisiana creole alphabet consists of twenty three letters of the iso basic latin alphabet excluding c q and x and several special letters and diacritics 45 letter name 46 name ipa diacritics phoneme correspondence 47 28 a a a a á á à à â â a æ æ æ æ æ b b bé be b ç ç çé se s d d dé de d e e e ə é é è è ê ê ə é e è ɛ f f èf ɛf f g g gé ɡe ɡ h h hash haʃ h i i i i í í ì ì î î i ì ɪ j j ji ʒi ʒ k k ka ka k l l èl ɛl l m m èmm ɛ̃m m n n ènn ɛ̃n n ñ ñ ñé ɲe ɲ o o o o ó ó ò ò ô ô o ò ɔ œ œ œ œ œ p p pé pe p r r ær èr æɾ ɛɾ r s s ès ɛs s t t té te t u u u y û û y v v vé ve v w w double vé dubləve w y y igrèk iɡɾɛk j z z zèd zɛd z digraph name name ipa phoneme correspondence ch ché tʃe tʃ dj djé dʒe dʒ ou ou u u sh shé ʃe ʃ nasals an am en em ɑ̃ in im ɛ̃ on om ɔ̃ un um œ̃ language samples edit numbers edit number louisiana creole ipa louisiana french ipa 1 un in œ̃ ɛ̃ un ein ɛ̃ 2 dé de deux dø 3 trwa trò tɾwa tɾɔ trois tɾwa 4 kat kat quatre kat ɾ 5 sink sɛ̃k cinq sɛ̃k 6 sis sis six sis 7 sèt sɛt sept sɛt 8 wit wit huit ɥit 9 nèf nɛf neuf nœf 10 dis dis dix dis 11 onz ɔ̃z onze ɔ̃z 12 douz duz douze duz 13 trèz tɾɛz treize tɾɛz 14 katòrz katɔɾz quatorze katɔɾz 15 kinz kɛ̃z quinze kɛ̃z 16 sèz sɛz seize sɛz 17 dis sèt disɛt dix sept disɛt 18 diz wit dizwit dix huit dizɥit 19 diz nèf diznɛf dix neuf diznœf 20 vi...
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