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for human nonhuman interactions is thus a key point of research population dynamics with repeated conservation surveys form a significant part of research activities for indian primatologists for example primate rescue centers are key research hubs in vietnam ecology demography human wildlife conflict and conservation of interconnected species and ecosystems are all possible focal points 5 ethnoprimatology is a 21st century subdiscipline focused on the social cultural and ecological contexts of human primate interactions these interactions have also been viewed as human wildlife conflict and human wildlife coexistence as habitat loss continues to worsen internationally primatologists agustin fuentes and kimberley j hockings state that understanding which primates are best able to adapt and interface with human populations and how they are able to do so is a new frontier for primatology 6 history edit early roots in the west edit primate research has its roots back several centuries linnaeus named primates of the highest rank in latin in 1758 placing homo humans in the same taxonomic order as monkeys apes lemurs and bats 7 this was later revised and the order primates now includes strepsirrhines lemurs galagos pottos lorises and haplorhines monkeys apes and humans charles darwin s books on the origin of species 1859 and the descent of man 1871 drew widespread attention to humans closest relatives his theory of evolution ignited public fascination with the relationship between humans and monkeys even a gorilla craze 8 zoologists ramona and desmond morris later credited darwin for setting off two major trends one by connecting humans with other animals darwin prompted researchers to consider the behaviour of living animals especially monkeys and apes as worthy of detailed scientific study two researchers inspired by darwin became prone to highly anthropomorphic interpretations of animal behavior once animals were seen as related to humanity they were viewed as potentially highly rational creatures with exalted moral codes 9 a 1910 syndicated news story made r l garner s interpretations of chimp behavior almost comical richard garner arguably among the first dedicated primate field researchers personified this tendency garner was an innovator in some ways he built a cage in the african forest to study gorillas in their natural habitat he recorded primate vocalizations and tested the animal s responses when played back but his writings included anthropomorphized claims about monkey and ape speech stories that provided fodder for outlandish newspaper headlines and illustrations 9 10 while scientists from the late 19th and early 20th century were deeply interested in researching evolution they were wary of being seen as peddling garner style primate folklore 11 in the early 1900s many western researchers discounted observational studies as unprofessional and uncontrolled they viewed lab experiments as the scientific ideal but faced serious complications in building out spaces suitable for primates primates are not indigenous to europe or north america and importing them was expensive 12 13 in the early 20th century scientists struggled to keep captive primates alive yerkes s chim died a year after yerkes purchased him here chim copies humans gently paging through a book 14 more significantly those hoping to study primates struggled to keep animals alive the experience of american scientist robert yerkes is illustrative yerkes spent 2 000 in 1923 15 most of his life savings at that point to buy his first two ape study subjects chim and panzee within 5 months panzee was dead and by 12 months chim was too 14 from 1837 to 1965 the average primate in zoos survived about 18 months 16 given that apes take a decade or more to reach adulthood the poor care practices for captive animals meant that studies were bound to be short term and largely restricted to juveniles yerkes improved his animal care methods after traveling to cuba to visit wealthy animal keeper rosalía abreu the first person to successfully breed chimpanzees in captivity he documented abreu s practices in almost human 1925 17 in which he identified several factors to improve captive primate care socially house animals in large clean spaces with a choice of shade or sunlight fresh air sunlight a varied appropriate diet and where possible space for exercise 18 other early pioneers of primate research include clarence ray carpenter an american student of yerkes was one of the first researchers to scientifically record the behavior of wild primates in the 1930s he established rigorous methodologies for field scientists to follow 19 wolfgang kohler a german psychologist who conducted seminal experiments on ape cognition described in his classic the mentality of apes 1917 élie metchnikoff a russian immunologist in 1903 used chimpanzees and orangutans as the first reliable animal models for studying the progression and treatment of human disease in this case syphilus 12 racism in primate research edit early primate research used science to give cover to racist ideology such as that popularized by crookshank in his book the mongol in our midst primate research before the 1950s had roots in eugenics and scientific racism reflecting and amplifying racist tropes in western popular culture robert yerkes often considered the founder of american primatology promoted primate research in 1925 by arguing that it was the most practical way to wisely and effectively regulate or control individual social and racial existence 17 260 it was practical he argued because one could conduct experiments on apes relatively efficiently compared to humans without risk of social censure or legal infringement 20 yerkes was a supporter of eugenics an ideology intended to improve the genetic quality of the human race eugenics became hotly criticized and in the us started to wane in the 1920s in effect yerkes worked to build a new discipline primatology on the remains of an old one eugenics 21 yerkes was far from alone in this effort konrad lorenz an austrian zoologist whose work heavily influenced the development of european primatology was also an advocate of eugenics in the early 1940s lorenz defended nazi efforts to prevent interbreeding of different human races 22 richard garner the attention seeking professor of monkey talk mentioned above used his platforms to promote white supremacy in the late 1890s and early 1900s 23 f g crookshank a fellow of britain s royal college of physicians published a book in 1924 claiming that white people descended from chimpanzees black people from gorillas and yellow asian people from orangutans 24 crookshank in line with other racial pseudoscientists argued that racial mixing was dangerous and destructive to the white race significant change to anthropology and thus primate research came after wwii and the nazi holocaust in the wake of nazi atrocities fueled by beliefs about racial superiority anthropologists shifted dramatically away from studying differences between races instead they began stressing the unity of the human species the new physical anthropology promoted by sherwood washburn a pioneer in baboon studies had an antiracist ethos 25 62 63 but while explicit racism in mainstream science waned after wwii primatology s racist roots have continued to impact the field donna haraway drew attention to the legacy of racism and sexism in primatology in her critical history of the field primate visions 1989 26 in 2023 the american journal of biological anthropology published an editorial by thomas c wilson a black primatologist outlining ways that the field s racist legacy in which black members constituted only 9 of survey respondents negatively impacts contemporary research 27 establishing primatology in japan edit japan is home to an indigenous species of macaques which made it easier to develop field research there primatology emerged as its own distinctive field in the 1950s 28 4 that decade saw the rise of primatology simultaneously and largely independently in both japan and in the west north america and europe over time the traditions blended but japanese scientific practice initially differed from that of the darwin centered objectivity focused researchers overseas 29 the relationship between humans and other living beings was a deep seated part of japanese cultural and intellectual traditions while the quest for objectivity was not 29 japanese scientists assumed monkeys were thinking animals because nonthinking doesn t make sense from an evolutionary perspective the problem of mind in animals was not a problem for the japanese in the way it was for western scholars 30 this opened up japanese studies to criticism of anthropomorphism and bias even in cases where their ideas later proved correct 31 unlike europe and the us japan was home to an indigenous monkey species japanese macaques making it relatively easy to observe subjects in the wild in the 1950s the tropical areas where most primates live were very difficult and expensive for outsiders to access 32 so while primatology in the west focused on animals in captivity in zoos and labs japanese scientists focused on field research kinji imanishi and junichiro itani founders of japanese primatology studied primate social groups seeking insights into the origins of human society 33 they pioneered the following distinct techniques 34 30 provisioning researchers provided food for the monkeys as a short cut to habituate them making them easier to observe this practice was later discouraged out of concerns that it warps natural behaviors individual identification learning to identify every monkey in a troop as an individual was seen as key to understanding the group s dynamics japanese researchers also identified primate personalities long term studies over many years and multiple generations were considered necessary to understand group dynamics and society the first scientific journal focused on primate research primates was published in japan in 1957 with english translations more japanese studies were translated into english in the 1960s where they eventually found an audience in the west many of their findings regarding dominance hierarchies matrilineal residence the existence of a breeding season provided foundational understandings of primate socialization internationally perhaps the most widely popularized reports of japanese origin were those regarding macaque proto culture in 1954 satsue mito a field assistant noticed that one of the female monkeys washed her sweet potatoes before eating them and that other monkeys in the group were copying the habit this led researchers to explore how learned behaviors spread in populations eventually igniting debates around monkey and ape culture a subject popularized in the u s by frans de waal in the ape and the sushi master 35 25 imanishi and itani went on to co found the primate research institute at kyoto university in 1967 establishing primatology in europe and north america edit in the period after wwii primate researchers in the west drew more heavily upon captive animals than did their colleagues in japan so in the 1950s western primate research could be roughly lumped into two categories lab research and field studies these approaches served wildly different purposes goals and methods scientific journals dedicated specifically to primatology appeared later in the west than in japan folia primatologica launched in 1963 the international journal of primatology in 1980 the american journal of primatology in 1981 and primate conservation in 1981 lab research edit in harry harlow s experiments isolating baby monkeys from their mothers an infant clings to a soft surrogate innovations in captive animal care and breeding enabled new lines of inquiry in the 1950s biomedical researchers saw monkeys and apes as ideal animal models for understanding human disease and now had the resources to advance experimental testing perhaps the most notable medical breakthroughs were the use of rhesus macaques in making the salk polio vaccine 36 and chimpanzees in developing the hepatitis b vaccine 37 silver spring monkey in a restraint chair in 1981 inside the laboratory at the institute of behavioral research maryland 1981 monkeys and apes were seen as models not only for human anatomy but psychology and the 1950s and 1960s saw a proliferation of psychological studies using primates of these arguably harry harlow achieved the most fame and notoriety as the initiator of wire monkey mother surrogate studies 38 his research was widely covered in mainstream media ultimately leading to broad shifts toward more nurturing methods of prenatal pediatric and psychological care in humans 39 harlow s habit of describing his work in gruesome detail came at a cost however it ended up inspiring an organized animal rights movement this period was captured in a series of articles by deborah blum later compiled into the monkey wars blum s research on this controversy received the pulitzer prize in 1992 40 scientific efforts to teach great apes human sign language proved to be more popular with the larger public ape sign language studies had their heyday in the early 1970s before a critical study in science 41 1979 was seen as debunking the research as a result government and foundations cut funding for ape language research 42 the sign language studies ultimately illustrated a problem with experimental psychology more generally working with traumatized animals in human centered unnatural conditions led to skewed results even accusations of pseudoscience 43 44 rather than trying to teach apes human language 21st century explorations of primate communication focused on observing species in their natural habitats in the 21st century many countries have banned or eliminated the use of great apes as biomedical subjects in response to public opposition and efforts such as project r r and great ape project as well as pragmatic concerns however researchers continue to use monkeys as experimental subjects a practice that remains controversial field research edit post wwii prosperity and improvements in international travel opened up new opportunities for westerners to study primates in natural environments in the 1950s r l carpenter resumed research on rhesus macaques that he had translocated to puerto rico studies on baboons in africa proliferated unlike other monkeys baboons live on savannah not in trees and thus were seen as better models of human origins studies on lower arboreal primates lemurs and langurs had a slower start but represented an important development in studying animals for their own sake not just as little furry people 45 46 a sculpture of jane goodall and david greybeard outside the field museum of natural history in chicago paleontologist louis leakey helped organize long term studies of chimpanzees and gorillas in africa with jane goodall and dian fossey in the 1960s th...
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