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island southeast asia then between 1500 bc and 1500 ad they settled uninhabited islands of the pacific and also sailed westward to madagascar this is associated with distinctive maritime technology lashed lug construction techniques both in outrigger canoes and in large planked sailing vessels various types of outrigger and twin hulled canoes and a range of sailing rigs that included the crab claw sail the origins of this technology is difficult to date relying largely on linguistics studying the words for parts of boats the written comments of people from other cultures including the observations of european explorers at the time of first contact and the later more systematic ethnographic observations of the types of craft in use there is only a small body of archaeological evidence available since island southeast asia contained effective maritime transport between its very large number of islands long before austronesian seafaring it is argued that austronesians adopted an existing maritime technology from the existing inhabitants of this region 9 50 64 10 85 88 11 487 488 generalized diagram cross section of lashed lug planking in butuan boat two clark et al 1993 12 austronesian ships varied from simple canoes to large multihull ships the simplest form of all ancestral austronesian boats had five parts the bottom part consists of a single piece of hollowed out log at the sides were two planks and two horseshoe shaped wood pieces formed the prow and stern these were fitted tightly together edge to edge with dowels inserted into holes in between and then lashed to each other with ropes made from rattan or fiber wrapped around protruding lugs on the planks this characteristic and ancient austronesian boatbuilding practice is known as the lashed lug technique they were commonly caulked with pastes made from various plants as well as tapa bark and fibres which would expand when wet further tightening joints and making the hull watertight they formed the shell of the boat which was then reinforced by horizontal ribs shipwrecks of austronesian ships can be identified from this construction as well as the absence of metal nails austronesian ships traditionally had no central rudders but were instead steered using an oar on one side 10 13 14 15 16 construction of the naga pelangi in 2004 a malaysian pinas using traditional austronesian edge dowelled techniques note the protruding dowels on the upper edges of the planks and the fiber caulking in the seams austronesians traditionally made their sails from woven mats of the resilient and salt resistant pandanus leaves these sails allowed austronesians to embark on long distance voyaging 17 18 the ancient champa of vietnam also uniquely developed basket hulled boats whose hulls were composed of woven and resin caulked bamboo either entirely or in conjunction with plank strakes they range from small coracles the o thúng to large ocean going trading ships like the ghe mành 19 20 3rd millennium bc edit ancient egypt edit early egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together using pitch for caulking the seams the khufu ship a 43 6 meter vessel sealed into a pit in the giza pyramid complex at the foot of the great pyramid of giza in the fourth dynasty around 2500 bc is a full size surviving example which may have fulfilled the symbolic function of a solar barque early egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints 7 ancient india edit the oldest known tidal dock in the world was built around 2500 bc during the harappan civilisation at lothal near the present day mangrol harbour on the gujarat coast in india other ports were probably at kot bala and dwarka however it is probable that many small scale ports and not massive ports were used for the harappan maritime trade 21 ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established trade with mesopotamia 22 full citation needed shipbuilding and boatmaking may have been prosperous industries in ancient india 23 native labourers may have manufactured the flotilla of boats used by alexander the great to navigate across the hydaspes and even the indus under nearchos 23 full citation needed the indians also exported teak for shipbuilding to ancient persia 24 other references to indian timber used for shipbuilding is noted in the works of ibn jubayr 24 2nd millennium bc edit succession of forms in the development of the austronesian boat 25 mediterranean edit the ships of ancient egypt s eighteenth dynasty were typically about 25 meters 80 ft in length and had a single mast sometimes consisting of two poles lashed together at the top making an a shape they mounted a single square sail on a yard with an additional spar along the bottom of the sail these ships could also be oar propelled 26 the ocean and sea going ships of ancient egypt were constructed with cedar wood most likely hailing from lebanon 27 the ships of phoenicia seem to have been of a similar design 1st millennium bc edit austronesia edit austronesians established the austronesian maritime trade network at around 1000 to 600 bc linking southeast asia with east asia south asia the middle east and later east africa the route later became part of the spice trade network and the maritime silk road 28 29 obsolete source 25 china edit the naval history of china stems back to the spring and autumn period 722 481 bc of the ancient chinese zhou dynasty the chinese built large rectangular barges known as castle ships which were essentially floating fortresses complete with multiple decks with guarded ramparts however the chinese vessels during this era were essentially fluvial riverine true ocean going chinese fleets did not appear until the 10th century song dynasty 30 20 21 31 32 mediterranean edit there is considerable knowledge regarding shipbuilding and seafaring in the ancient mediterranean 33 1st millennium ad edit austronesia edit one of the javanese borobudur ships c 778 850 ad depicting a typical austronesian ship with tanja sails and double outriggers large multi masted seafaring ships of southeast asian austronesians first started appearing in chinese records during the han dynasty as the k un lun po or kunlun bo ship of the k un lun dark skinned southern people 34 these ships used two types of sail of their invention the junk sail and tanja sail large ships are about 50 60 metres 164 197 ft long had 5 2 7 8 metres 17 26 ft tall freeboard 35 each carrying provisions enough for a year 36 464 and could carry 200 1000 people the chinese recorded that these southeast asian ships were hired for passage to south asia by chinese buddhist pilgrims and travelers because they did not build seaworthy ships of their own until around the 8 9th century ad 31 276 illustration of a djong large javanese trading vessel extant until 17th century ad shown with the characteristic tanja sail of southeast asian austronesians vessels like these became the basis of southern chinese junks austronesians especially from western island southeast asia were trading in the indian ocean as far as africa during this period by around 50 to 500 ad a group of austronesians believed to be from the southeastern coasts of borneo possibly a mixed group related to the modern ma anyan banjar and or the dayak people crossed the indian ocean and colonized madagascar this resulted in the introduction of outrigger canoe technology to non austronesian cultures in the east african coast 37 china edit the ancient chinese also built fluvial ramming vessels as in the greco roman tradition of the trireme although oar steered ships lost favor very early on the stern mounted rudder was first developed in 1st century china under the han dynasty along with the junk ship style the chinese were using square sails during the han dynasty and adopted the austronesian junk sail later in the 12th century 30 20 21 iconographic remains show that chinese ships before the 12th century used square sails and the junk rig of chinese ships is believed to be developed from tilted sails 38 612 613 southern chinese junks were based on keeled and multi planked austronesian ship known as po by the chinese from the old javanese parahu 39 1280 javanese prau or malay perahu large ship 40 613 41 42 southern chinese junks showed characteristics of austronesian ships that they are made using timbers of tropical origin with keeled v shaped hull this is different from northern chinese junks which are developed from flat bottomed riverine boats 30 20 21 the northern chinese junks were primarily built of pine or fir wood had flat bottoms with no keel water tight bulkheads with no frames transom squared stern and stem and have their planks fastened with iron nails or clamps 40 612 614 it was unknown when the chinese people started adopting southeast asian austronesian shipbuilding techniques they may have been started as early as the 8th century but the development was gradual and the true ocean going chinese junks did not appear suddenly 43 276 44 200 45 the word po survived in chinese long after referring to the large ocean going junks 43 274 mediterranean edit in september 2011 archeological investigations done at the site of portus in rome revealed inscriptions in a shipyard constructed during the reign of trajan 98 117 that indicated the existence of a shipbuilders guild 46 early 2nd millennium ad edit austronesia edit model of a fijian drua with a crab claw sail from the otago museum an example of an austronesian ocean going vessel roughly at this time is the last migration wave of the austronesian expansion when the polynesian islands spread over vast distances across the pacific ocean were being colonized by the austronesian polynesians from island melanesia using double hulled voyaging catamarans at its furthest extent there is a possibility that they may have reached the americas 47 after the 11th century a new type of ship called djong or jong was recorded in java and bali 48 49 this type of ship was built using wooden dowels and treenails unlike the kunlun bo which used vegetal fibres for lashings 50 the empire of majapahit used jong built in northern java for transporting troops overseas 51 the jongs were transport ships which could carry 100 2000 tons of cargo and 50 1000 people 28 99 88 56 meter in length 52 the exact number of jong fielded by majapahit is unknown but the largest number of jong deployed in an expedition is about 400 jongs when majapahit attacked pasai in 1350 53 europe edit shipwrights building a brigantine 1541 viking longships were seen as marking an advance on traditional clinker built hulls where leather thongs were used to join plank boards 54 this consensus has been challenged haywood 55 has argued that earlier frankish and anglo saxon nautical practice was much more accomplished than had been thought and has described the distribution of clinker vs carvel construction in western europe see map an insight into shipbuilding in the north sea baltic areas of the early medieval period was found at sutton hoo england where a ship was buried with a chieftain the ship was 26 metres 85 ft long and 4 3 metres 14 ft 56 wide upward from the keel the hull was made by overlapping nine strakes on either side with rivets fastening the oaken planks together it could hold upwards of thirty men sometime around the 12th century northern european ships began to be built with a straight sternpost enabling the mounting of a rudder which was much more durable than a steering oar held over the side development in the middle ages favored round ships 57 with a broad beam and heavily curved at both ends another important ship type was the galley which was constructed with both sails and oars citation needed the first extant treatise on shipbuilding was written c 1436 by michael of rhodes 58 a man who began his career as an oarsman on a venetian galley in 1401 and worked his way up into officer positions he wrote and illustrated a book that contains a treatise on shipbuilding a treatise on mathematics much material on astrology and other materials his treatise on shipbuilding treats three kinds of galleys and two kinds of round ships 59 china edit this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed january 2026 learn how and when to remove this message a two masted chinese junk from the tiangong kaiwu of song yingxing published in 1637 shipbuilders in the ming dynasty c 1368 1644 were not the same as the shipbuilders in other chinese dynasties due to hundreds of years of accumulated experiences and rapid changes in the ming dynasty shipbuilders in the ming dynasty primarily worked for the government under command of the ministry of public works citation needed during the early years of the ming dynasty the ming government maintained an open policy towards sailing between 1405 and 1433 the government conducted seven diplomatic ming treasure voyages to over thirty countries in southeast asia india the middle east and eastern africa the voyages were initiated by the yongle emperor and led by the admiral zheng he six voyages were conducted under the yongle emperor s reign the last of which returned to china in 1422 after the yongle emperor s death in 1424 his successor the hongxi emperor ordered the suspension of the voyages the seventh and final voyage began in 1430 sent by the xuande emperor although the hongxi and xuande emperors did not emphasize sailing as much as the yongle emperor they were not against it this led to a high degree of commercialization and an increase in trade large numbers of ships were built to meet the demand 60 61 the ming voyages were large in size numbering as many as 300 ships and 28 000 men 62 the shipbuilders were brought from different places in china to the shipyard in nanjing including zhejiang jiangxi fujian and huguang now the provinces of hubei and hunan one of the most famous shipyards was long jiang shipyard zh 龙江船厂 located in nanjing near the treasure shipyard where the ocean going ships were built 60 the shipbuilders could build 24 models of ships of varying sizes 60 full size replica of zheng he s treasure ship several types of ships were built for the voyages including shachuan 沙船 fuchuan 福船 and baochuan treasure ship 宝船 63 zheng he s treasure ships were regarded as shachuan types mainly because they were made in the treasure shipyard in nanjing shachuan or sand ships are ships used primarily for inland transport 60 however in recent years some researchers agree that the treasure ships were more of the fuchuan type it is said in vol 176 of san guo bei meng hui bian 三朝北盟汇编 that ships made in fujian are the best ones 63 therefore the best shipbuilders and laborers were brought from these places to support zheng he s expedition the shipyard was under the command of ministry of public works the shipbuilders had ...
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