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lling entertainment the court of justice held that the german constitutional value of human dignity which underpinned the ban did count as a justified restriction on freedom to provide services in liga portuguesa de futebol v santa casa da misericórdia de lisboa the court of justice also held that the state monopoly on gambling and a penalty for a gibraltar firm that had sold internet gambling services was justified to prevent fraud and gambling where people s views were highly divergent 263 the ban was proportionate as this was an appropriate and necessary way to tackle the serious problems of fraud that arise over the internet in the services directive a group of justifications were codified in article 16 which the case law has developed 264 capital edit main articles capital control single euro payments area and economic and monetary union of the eu v t e freedom of capital sources tfeu arts 63 65 capital movement directive 1988 baars v inspecteur der belastingen particulieren 2000 c 251 98 commission v belgium 2000 c 478 98 commission v germany 2007 c 112 05 commission v portugal 2010 c 171 08 tfeu arts 119 282 284 see eu law the european system of central banks including the ecb and member state banks like the banque de france has been criticised for failing to fulfil its mandate it interpreted the requirement for price stability as requiring wage suppression and growing inequality in its dealings on the european debt crisis 265 free movement of capital was traditionally seen as the fourth freedom after goods workers and persons services and establishment the original treaty of rome required that restrictions on free capital flows only be removed to the extent necessary for the common market from the treaty of maastricht now in tfeu article 63 all restrictions on the movement of capital between member states and between member states and third countries shall be prohibited 266 this means capital controls of various kinds are prohibited including limits on buying currency limits on buying company shares or financial assets or government approval requirements for foreign investment by contrast taxation of capital including corporate tax capital gains tax and financial transaction tax are not affected so long as they do not discriminate by nationality according to the capital movement directive 1988 annex i 13 categories of capital which must move free are covered 267 in baars v inspecteur der belastingen particulieren the court of justice held that for investments in companies the capital rules rather than freedom of establishment rules were engaged if an investment did not enable a definite influence through shareholder voting or other rights by the investor 268 that case held a dutch wealth tax act 1964 unjustifiably exempted dutch investments but not mr baars investments in an irish company from the tax the wealth tax or exemptions had to be applied equally on the other hand tfeu article 65 1 does not prevent taxes that distinguish taxpayers based on their residence or the location of an investment as taxes commonly focus on a person s actual source of profit or any measures to prevent tax evasion 269 apart from tax cases largely following from cases originating in the uk 270 a series of cases held that government owned golden shares were unlawful in commission v germany the commission claimed the 1960 german volkswagen act violated article 63 in that 2 1 restricted any party having voting rights exceeding 20 of the company and 4 3 allowed a minority of 20 of shares held by the lower saxony government to block any decisions although this was not an impediment to actual purchase of shares or receipt of dividends by any shareholder the court of justice s grand chamber agreed that it was disproportionate for the government s stated aim of protecting workers or minority shareholders 271 similarly in commission v portugal the court of justice held that portugal infringed free movement of capital by retaining golden shares in portugal telecom that enabled disproportionate voting rights by creating a deterrent effect on portfolio investments and reducing the attractiveness of an investment 272 this suggested the court s preference that a government if it sought public ownership or control should nationalise in full the desired proportion of a company in line with tfeu article 345 273 the final stage of completely free movement of capital was thought to require a single currency and monetary policy eliminating the transaction costs and fluctuations of currency exchange between member states but not between member states and third countries tfeu article 63 following a report of the delors commission in 1988 274 the treaty of maastricht made economic and monetary union an objective first by completing the internal market second by creating a european system of central banks to coordinate common monetary policy and third by locking exchange rates and introducing a single currency the euro today 19 member states have adopted the euro while 9 member states have either determined to opt out or their accession has been delayed particularly since the european debt crisis according to tfeu articles 119 and 127 the objective of the european central bank and other central banks ought to be price stability this has been criticised for apparently being superior to the objective of full employment in the treaty on european union article 3 275 social and market regulations edit see also market economy and stakeholder corporate all enterprises and markets are governed through legal rights for consumers employees investors or the public in laws of property contract competition environmental law and other social and economic rights 276 eu law harmonises a minimum floor of rights so that stakeholders can fully participate in social progress 277 while the european economic community originally focused on free movement and dismantling barriers to trade more eu law today concerns regulation of the social market economy 278 in 1976 the court of justice said in defrenne v sabena the goal was not merely an economic union but to ensure social progress and seek the constant improvement of the living and working conditions of their peoples 279 on this view stakeholders in each member state might not have the capacity to take advantage of expanding trade in a globalising economy groups with greater bargaining power can exploit weaker legal rights in other member states for example a corporation could shift production to member states with a lower minimum wage to increase shareholder profit even if production costs more and workers are paid less this would mean an aggregate loss of social wealth and a race to the bottom in human development to make globalisation fair the eu establishes a minimum floor of rights for the stakeholders in enterprise for consumers workers investors shareholders creditors and the public each field of law is vast so eu law is designed to be subsidiary to comprehensive rules in each member state member states may go beyond the harmonised minimum acting as laboratories of democracy 280 eu law makes basic standards of exit where markets operate rights enforceable in court and voice especially through votes in enterprise 281 rules of competition law balance the interests of different groups generally to favour consumers for the larger purpose in the treaty on european union article 3 3 of a highly competitive social market economy 282 the eu is bound by the treaty on the functioning of the european union article 345 to in no way prejudice the rules in member states governing the system of property ownership 273 this means the eu is bound to be neutral to member state s choice to take enterprises into public ownership or to privatise them while there have been academic proposals for a european civil code and projects to frame non binding principles of contract and tort harmonisation has only occurred for conflict of laws and intellectual property consumer protection edit v t e consumer law sources tfeu art 169 and cfreu art 38 product liability directive 1985 unfair terms in consumer contracts directive 1993 banco español de crédito sa v camino 2012 c 618 10 rwe ag v verbraucherzentrale nrw ev 2013 c 92 11 brusse v jahani bv 2013 c 488 11 aziz v caixa d estalvis de catalunya 2013 c 415 11 kušionová v smart capital a s 2014 c 34 13 unfair commercial practices directive 2005 consumer rights directive 2011 see also eu law see also european consumer law and consumer protection protection of european consumers has been a central part of developing the eu internal market the treaty on the functioning of the european union article 169 enables the eu to follow the ordinary legislative procedure to protect consumers health safety and economic interests and promote rights to information education and to organise themselves in order to safeguard their interests 283 all member states may grant higher protection and a high level of consumer protection is regarded as a fundamental right 284 beyond these general principles and outside specific sectors there are four main directives the product liability directive 1985 unfair terms in consumer contracts directive 1993 unfair commercial practices directive 2005 and the consumer rights directive 2011 requiring information and cancellation rights for consumers as a whole the law is designed to ensure that consumers in the eu are entitled to the same minimum rights wherever they shop and largely follows inspiration from theories of consumer protection developed in california and the consumer bill of rights proclaimed by john f kennedy in 1962 the court of justice has continually affirmed that the need for more consumer rights than in commercial contracts both because consumers tend to lack information and they have less bargaining power 285 due to their unequal bargaining power 285 consumers are entitled to a legislative charter of rights to safe and healthy products fair terms proper information free from misleading advertising and marketing and rights of cancellation the product liability directive 1985 was the first consumer protection measure it creates strict enterprise liability for all producers and retailers for any harm to consumers from products as a way to promote basic standards of health and safety 286 any producer or supplier if the ultimate producer is insolvent of a product is strictly liable to compensate a consumer for any damage caused by a defective product 287 a defect is anything which falls below what a consumer is entitled to expect and this essentially means that products should be safe for their purpose a narrow defensive is available if a producer can show that a defect could not be known by any scientific method thought this has never been successfully invoked because it is generally thought a profit making enterprise should not be able to externalise the risks of its activities the unfair terms in consumer contracts directive 1993 was the second main measure 288 under article 3 1 a term is unfair and not binding if it is not individually negotiated and if contrary to the requirement of good faith it causes a significant imbalance in the parties rights and obligations arising under the contract to the detriment of the consumer the court of justice has continually affirmed that the directive as recital 16 states is based on the idea that the consumer is in a weak position vis à vis the seller or supplier as regards both his bargaining power and his level of knowledge 289 terms which are very skewed are to be conclusively regarded as contrary to good faith and therefore unfair 290 for example in rwe ag v verbraucherzentrale nrw ev clauses in gas supply contracts enabling corporation rwe to unilaterally vary prices were advised by the court of justice to be not sufficiently transparent and therefore unfair 291 in brusse v jahani bv 292 the court of justice advised that clauses in a tenancy contract requiring tenants pay 25 per day were likely unfair and would have to be entirely void without replacement if they were not substituted with more precise mandatory terms in national legislation in aziz v caixa d estalvis de catalunya following the 2008 financial crisis the european court of justice advised that even terms regarding repossession of homes in spain had to be assessed for fairness by national courts 293 in kušionová v smart capital a s the court of justice held that consumer law was to be interpreted in the light of fundamental rights including the right to housing if a home could be repossessed 294 because consumer law operates through directives national courts have the final say on applying the general principles set out by the court of justice s case law unfair commercial practices directive 2005 29 ec consumer rights directive 2011 83 eu payment services directive 2007 64 ec late payments directive 2011 7 eu labour rights edit v t e european labour rights tfeu arts 151 153 cfreu arts 12 15 20 34 echr arts 4 6 9 11 employment information directive 1991 working time directive 2003 institutions for occupational retirement provision directive 2003 pregnant workers directive 1992 parental leave directive 2010 safety and health at work directive 1989 posted workers directive 1996 part time work directive 1997 fixed term work directive 1999 temporary agency work directive 2008 equality framework directive 2000 race equality directive 2000 equal treatment directive 2006 wilson and palmer v united kingdom 2002 echr 552 demir and baykara v turkey 2008 echr 1345 information and consultation directive 2002 european works council directive 2009 employee involvement directive 2001 european company regulation 2001 transfers of undertakings directive 2001 collective redundancies directive 1998 insolvency protection directive 2008 see eu law and labour law main articles european labour law ilo conventions uk labour law german labour law french labour law and united states labor law while free movement of workers was central to the first european economic community agreement the development of european labour law has been a gradual process originally the ohlin report of 1956 recommended that labour standards did not need to be harmonised although a general principle of anti discrimination between men and women was included in the early treaties increasingly the absence of labour rights was seen as inadequate given the capacity for a race to the bottom in international trade if corporations can shift jobs and production to countries with low wages today the eu is required under tfeu article 147 to contribute to a high level of employment by encouraging cooperation between member states 295 this has not resulted in legislation which usually requires taxation and fiscal stimulus for significant change while the european central bank s monetary policy has been acutely controversial during the european debt crisis under article 153 1 the eu is 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