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ropes and discourses prejudices cameroonian anthropologist francis b nyamnjoh notes that accusations of cannibalism whether justified or not were often used to other non western peoples thus serving to justify their colonization and exploitation 173 he notes that cannibalism was and is often regarded as an evil act associated with primitive savages living dangerously like wild animals at the margins of humanity and human civilisation and needing to be stamped out at all costs with even those advocating cultural relativism usually becoming uneas y when it comes to making a case for tolerance and accommodation of cannibalism 174 according to nyamnjoh the blanket disbelief in ritual not just exceptional cannibalism expressed by some authors such as william arens indicates that they find it difficult to accept such a custom among the possible human behaviours but do not want to appear narrow minded by openly condemning it he sees this stance as a superficial acknowledgement of cultural relativism that however avoids confronting the complex realities of diverse human experiences in other societies the sometimes challenging other ways of being human that may include consuming the flesh of others nyamnjoh suggests that instead of making implausible arguments against the mere existence of cannibalism it is more productive to accept it and view it in context this perspective includes recognizing that there are other exploitative practices that while not involving the physical consumption of others are still deeply harmful to them 175 nyamnjoh warns that one must be careful when considering historical accounts attributing cannibalism to others since claims and accusations of cannibalism served as the perfect excuse for enslavement colonisation exploitation and forceful christianisation and westernisation whether factual exaggerated or imagined such statements were used to justify the colonising enslaving and dispossessing of non western others 173 he warns however against throwing out the baby of credible evidence with the bathwater of exaggerated or merely rumoured cannibal talk 176 he describes it as illogical that sceptics readily accept state violence bloody wars of genocidal proportions and violent encounters slavery colonialism and myriad forms of rabid imperialism as part of the historical record while rejecting the idea of cannibal practices that may well have gone with or resulted from such conflicts 177 nyamnjoh and others also note that europeans were quite hypocritical when condemning the cannibalism of others while at the same or almost the same time practising their own forms of cannibalism especially medicinal cannibalism at home 178 179 taboo while cannibalism has sometimes been called mankind s oldest taboo 180 several authors have identified this as a misleading trope contradicted by evidence showing that certain forms of cannibalism were until fairly recent times accepted in various parts of the world including for medical purposes and survival in europe 181 while there is no universal taboo against cannibalism 182 the idea that the practice is wrong is deeply ingrained in the religions which have shaped the societies and the attitudes of the richer nations of the western hemisphere today this allowed the taboo to spread so widely and thoroughly that many now regard it as self evident and ancient 183 romanian philosopher cǎtǎlin avramescu suggests that the cannibalism taboo became so strong in the christian world because of concerns about the resurrection of the flesh the idea that the dead will ultimately be resurrected not just spiritually but bodily as well everyone s body is made up of what they eat and so if people eat others the eaten flesh would effectively have to exist twice to allow both the eaten and the eater to be resurrected at the same time this paradox worried christian thinkers such as athenagoras of athens and thomas aquinas though they concluded that the infinite power of god would nevertheless make it possible to bodily and fully resurrect both it made cannibalism appear as a challenge to a central christian doctrine making it a diabolical act that had to be severely condemned 184 gender american sociologist katherine martinez describes violent cannibalism as a form of gendered consumption she notes that whether cannibalism was practised by ethnic groups or by individual murders such as albert fish or issei sagawa the perpetrators and consumers were primarily men while the victims were often women and children or feminized men such as captured enemies who were deliberately consumed to humiliate and dominate them and their communities the flesh of women and children was widely described as better than that of adult men while women s breasts were sought as particular delicacies in other cases the victims belonged to particularly vulnerable groups such as the mostly homosexual african american men and boys targeted by jeffrey dahmer martinez interprets many cannibal practices as forms of patriarchal control exerted by men over the feminized bodies of women children and othered men through their literal consumption a particularly violent way of seeking domination and control over others establishing a clear and deadly hierarchy between the eaters and the eaten 185 scepticism see also the man eating myth reception william arens author of the man eating myth anthropology and anthropophagy 9 questions the credibility of reports of cannibalism and argues that the description by one group of people of another people as cannibals is a consistent and demonstrable ideological and rhetorical device to establish perceived cultural superiority arens bases his thesis on a detailed analysis of various classic cases of cannibalism reported by explorers missionaries and anthropologists he claims that all of them were steeped in racism unsubstantiated or based on second hand or hearsay evidence though widely discussed arens s book generally failed to convince the academic community claude lévi strauss observes that in spite of his brilliant but superficial book n o serious ethnologist disputes the reality of cannibalism 10 shirley lindenbaum notes that while after arens s provocative suggestion many anthropologists reevaluated their data the outcome was an improved and more nuanced understanding of where why and under which circumstances cannibalism took place rather than a confirmation of his claims anthropologists working in the americas africa and melanesia now acknowledge that institutionalized cannibalism occurred in some places at some times archaeologists and evolutionary biologists are taking cannibalism seriously 11 lindenbaum and others point out that arens displays a strong ethnocentrism 186 his refusal to admit that institutionalized cannibalism ever existed seems to be motivated by the implied idea that cannibalism is the worst thing of all worse than any other behaviour people engaged in and therefore uniquely suited to vilifying others kajsa ekholm friedman calls this a remarkable opinion in a culture the european american one that has been capable of the most extreme cruelty and destructive behavior both at home and in other parts of the world 187 she observes that contrary to european values and expectations in many parts of the congo region there was no negative evaluation of cannibalism on the contrary people expressed their strong appreciation of this very special meat and could not understand the hysterical reactions from the white man s side 188 and why indeed she goes on to ask should they have had the same negative reactions to cannibalism as arens and his contemporaries implicitly he assumes that everybody throughout human history must have shared the strong taboo placed by his own culture on cannibalism but he never attempts to explain why this should be so and neither logic nor historical evidence justifies this viewpoint as christian siefkes commented 189 some have argued that it is the taboo against cannibalism rather than its practice that needs to be explained hubert murray the lieutenant governor of papua in the early 20th century admitted that i have never been able to give a convincing answer to a native who says to me why should i not eat human flesh 190 after observing that the orokaiva people in new guinea explained their cannibal customs as due to a simple desire for good food the australian anthropologist f e williams commented anthropologically speaking the fact that we ourselves should persist in a superstitious or at least sentimental prejudice against human flesh is more puzzling than the fact that the orokaiva a born hunter should see fit to enjoy perfectly good meat when he gets it 191 190 accusations of cannibalism could be used to characterize indigenous peoples as uncivilized primitive or even inhuman 192 while this means that the reliability of reports of cannibal practices must be carefully evaluated especially if their wording suggests such a context many actual accounts do not fit this pattern the earliest firsthand account of cannibal customs in the caribbean comes from diego álvarez chanca who accompanied christopher columbus on his second voyage his description of the customs of the caribs of guadeloupe includes their cannibalism men killed or captured in war were eaten while captured boys were castrated and used as servants until they gr e w up when they were slaughtered for consumption but he nevertheless notes that these people are more civilized than the other islanders who did not practice cannibalism 193 nor was he an exception among the earliest reports of cannibalism in the caribbean and the americas there are some like those of amerigo vespucci that seem to mostly consist of hearsay and gross exaggerations but others by chanca columbus himself and other early travellers show genuine interest and respect for the natives and include numerous cases of sincere praise 194 reports of cannibalism from other continents follow similar patterns condescending remarks can be found but many europeans who described cannibal customs in central africa wrote about those who practised them in quite positive terms calling them splendid and the finest people and not rarely like chanca actually considering them as far in advance of and intellectually and morally superior to the non cannibals around them 195 writing from melanesia the missionary george brown explicitly rejects the european prejudice of picturing cannibals as particularly ferocious and repulsive noting instead that many cannibals he met were no more ferocious than others and indeed very nice people 196 reports or assertions of cannibal practices could nevertheless be used to promote the use of military force as a means of civilizing and pacifying the savages during the spanish conquest of the aztec empire and its earlier conquests in the caribbean there were widespread reports of cannibalism and cannibals became exempted from queen isabella s prohibition on enslaving the indigenous 192 another example of the sensationalism of cannibalism and its connection to imperialism occurred during japan s 1874 expedition to taiwan as robert eskildsen describes japan s popular media exaggerated the aborigines violent nature in some cases by wrongly accusing them of cannibalism 197 this horrid practice the myth and reality of traditional maori cannibalism 2008 by new zealand historian paul moon received a hostile reception by some māori who felt the book tarnished their whole people however the factual accuracy of the book was not seriously disputed and even critics such as margaret mutu grant that cannibalism was definitely practised and that it was part of our māori culture 198 ethics modern views while in modern society cannibalism is widely considered ethically and morally wrong mathew lu notes that it is surprisingly difficult to explain why 199 distinguishing active killing someone to eat them from passive cannibalism eating the flesh of somebody whose death one has not caused lu notes that it is chiefly passive cannibalism that poses a problem since killing somebody is in most cases considered wrong anyway in such cases the wrongness comes from the killing regardless of whether or not it is followed by cannibalism 200 but the question of eating the body of someone who has died of unrelated reasons is harder to evaluate lu agrees with several other authors that on a utilitarian or kantian basis it seems impossible to establish that such acts are wrong since no living person is wronged in the process in utilitarianism if a cannibal act increases the happiness of some people say the eaters enjoy their meal without decreasing the happiness of others maybe the eaten had no friends or relatives or they do not know about the cannibalism it can even be considered as beneficial leading to a net gain in happiness 201 while kantian philosophy demands that other human beings should always be treated as ends never merely as means corpses are no longer autonomous persons and there is no straightforward basis on which to establish that they cannot be used as means for example for eating 202 j jeremy wisnewski who evaluates these and other arguments in a similar manner concludes that there is no rational justification for the cannibalism prohibition since all arguments for the immorality of cannibalism he was able to find and examine have been found wanting for him a general decision against eating human flesh can therefore only be based on sentimental not on moral reasons 203 while lu agrees that utilitarian and kantian philosophy cannot explain why non deadly cannibalism is wrong he suggests instead turning to a virtue ethics in the aristotelian tradition on this basis he argues it is possible to assign genuine moral value to human corpses that therefore deserve to be treated with respect a respect that would be violated by using them as food except in life or death situations 204 he considers the preservation of human life the sole acceptable justification for cannibalism meaning that corpses may be eaten as a last resort to face off starvation if other provisions are unavailable 205 other than that while some usages of a corpse may still be respectful eating it is not since it reduces the body to mere food a general form it shares with other edible substances in the process of cooking and eating a body the previous human form of the eaten is disregarded and completely destroyed lu argues that whenever alternative non human foods are available it is unnecessary disrespectful and therefore wrong to destroy the residual humanity still present in a corpse in such a way 206 from a consequentialist perspective john shand considers it impossible to give a rational moral justification against non deadly cannibalism because a person who is already dead cannot be harmed further by being consumed he concludes that the strong moral abhorrence of cannibalism widely felt in modern society is groundless 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