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ve modern racial censuses some international publications believe that mexican people of predominately european descent spanish or other european make up approximately one sixth 16 5 this is based on the figures of the last racial census in the country made in 1921 88 according to an opinion poll conducted by the latinobarómetro organization in 2011 52 of mexican respondents said they were mestizos 19 indigenous 6 white 2 mulattos and 3 other race 89 us census bureau classifications edit vincent barabba notable figure in the u s census bureau serving as its director from 1974 to 1979 where he played a key role in modernizing census methodologies and improving the use of data for public policy and planning as the united states borders expanded the united states census bureau changed its racial classification methods for mexican americans under united states jurisdiction the bureau s classification system has evolved significantly from its inception from 1790 to 1850 there was no distinct racial classification of mexican americans in the us census the categories recognized by the census bureau were white free people of color and black the census bureau estimates that during this period the number of persons who could not be categorized as white or black did not exceed 0 25 of the total population based on 1860 census data 90 from 1850 through 1920 the census bureau expanded its racial categories to include multi racial persons under mestizos mulattos as well as new categories of distinction of amerindians and asians it classified mexicans and mexican americans as white 90 the 1930 us census added a separate category for color or race which declassified mexicans as white census workers were instructed to write w for white and mex for mexican other categories were neg for negro in for amerindian ch for chinese jp for japanese fil for filipino hin for hindu and kor for korean 91 in the 1940 census due to widespread protests by the mexican american community following the 1930 changes mexican americans were re classified as white instructions for enumerators were mexicans report white w for mexicans unless they are definitely of indigenous or other non white race during the same census however the bureau began to track the white population of spanish mother tongue this practice continued through the 1960 census 90 the 1960 census also used the title spanish surnamed american in their reporting data of mexican americans this category also covered cuban americans puerto ricans and others under the same category from 1970 to 1980 there was a dramatic increase in the number of people who identified as of other race in the census reflecting the addition of a question on latino origin to the 100 percent questionnaire an increased propensity for latinos to identify as other than white as they agitated for civil rights and a change in editing procedures to accept reports of other race for respondents who wrote in ethnic hispanic entries such as mexican cuban or puerto rican in 1970 such responses in the other race category were reclassified and tabulated as white during this census the bureau attempted to identify all hispanics by use of the following criteria in sampled sets 90 spanish speakers and persons belonging to a household where the head of household was a spanish speaker persons with spanish heritage by birth location or surname persons who self identified spanish origin or descent from 1980 on the census bureau has collected data on latino origin on a 100 percent basis the bureau has noted in 2002 that an increasing number of respondents identify as of latino origin but not of the white race 90 for certain purposes respondents who wrote in chicano or mexican or indeed almost all latino origin groups in the some other race category were automatically re classified into the white race group 92 politics and debate of racial classification edit romualdo pacheco a californio statesman and first mexican to serve in the us house of representatives 1877 in some cases legal classification of white racial status has made it difficult for mexican american rights activists to prove minority discrimination in the case hernandez v texas 1954 civil rights lawyers for the appellant named pedro hernandez were confronted with a paradox because mexican americans were classified as white by the federal government and not as a separate race in the census lower courts held that they were not being denied equal protection by being tried by juries that excluded mexican americans by practice the lower court ruled there was no violation of the fourteenth amendment by excluding people with mexican ancestry among the juries attorneys for the state of texas and judges in the state courts contended that the amendment referred only to racial not nationality groups thus since mexican americans were tried by juries composed of their racial group whites their constitutional rights were not violated the us supreme court ruling in hernandez v texas case held that nationality groups could be protected under the fourteenth amendment and it became a landmark in the civil rights history of the united states 93 94 octaviano larrazolo became the first mexican american to serve in the us senate 1928 while mexican americans served in all white units during world war ii many mexican american veterans continued to face discrimination when they arrived home they created the g i forum to work for equal treatment 95 in times and places in the united states where mexicans were classified as white they were permitted by law to intermarry with what today are termed non latino whites social customs typically approved of such marriages only if the mexican partner was not of visible indigenous ancestry 96 in the late 1960s the founding of the crusade for justice in denver and the land grant movement in new mexico in 1967 set the bases for what would become known as chicano mexican american nationalism the 1968 los angeles california school walkouts expressed mexican american demands to end de facto ethnic segregation also based on residential patterns increase graduation rates and reinstate a teacher fired for supporting student political organizing a notable event in the chicano movement was the 1972 convention of la raza unida united people party which organized with the goal of creating a third party to give chicanos political power in the united states 95 in the past mexicans were legally considered white because either they were accepted as being of spanish ancestry or because of early treaty obligations to spaniards and mexicans that conferred citizenship status to mexican peoples before the american civil war numerous slave states bordered mexican territory at a time when whiteness was nearly a prerequisite for us citizenship in those states 97 98 henry cisneros the first mexican american mayor of a major u s city san antonio texas in 1981 cisneros later went on to serve as the secretary of housing and urban development although mexican americans were legally classified as white in terms of official federal policy socially they were seen as too indian to be treated as such 99 many organizations businesses and homeowners associations and local legal systems had official policies in the early 20th century to exclude mexican americans in a racially discriminatory way 100 throughout the southwest discrimination in wages was institutionalized in white wages versus lower mexican wages for the same job classifications 100 for mexican americans opportunities for employment were largely limited to guest worker programs 100 the bracero program begun in 1942 during world war ii when many united states men were drafted for war allowed mexicans temporary entry into the united states as migrant workers at farms throughout california and the southwest this program continued until 1964 84 101 102 lucille roybal allard daughter of edward r roybal first latino chair of the congressional hispanic caucus while both mexican american and african american minorities were subject to segregation and racial discrimination they were treated differently segregation is the physical separation of peoples on the basis of ethnicity and social custom historically applied to separate african americans and mexican americans from whites in texas racial attitudes that supported segregation of african americans probably arrived in texas during the 1820s in company with the peculiar institution slavery anglo americans began extending segregation to mexican americans after the texas revolution as a social custom tejanos formed a suspect class during and after the revolution and that fact led to a general aversion of them after the civil war segregation developed as a method of group control for both minority groups segregation existed in schools churches residential districts and most public places such as restaurants theaters and barber shops by the latter years of the nineteenth century institutionalized segregation flourished legally in places with a visible black population and was extended informally to tejanos most texas towns and cities had a negro quarter and a mexican quarter 103 although the law specified until 1890 that black schools were to have equal access to the common school fund they often did not in the early twentieth century black and mexican schools faced lamentable conditions endemic in an antiquated educational system and educational reforms of the progressive era did not improve matters during the 1920s black schoolchildren were more likely to miss school than white students black teachers received less pay and training than their white counterparts and teaching accommodations ordinarily amounted to one room buildings generally under the tutelage of a single teacher the same circumstances applied to hispanic students who were segregated because some whites thought them dirty and because some white employers desired an uneducated inexpensive labor pool whatever schools existed often suffered from inadequate financing poor educational facilities and racist curriculum 104 page needed demographics edit janet murguía is president of unidosus the united states largest hispanic nonprofit advocacy organization per 2021 data mexican americans are concentrated in california 34 texas 26 arizona 5 illinois 5 and colorado 2 105 the counties with the largest mexican population are los angeles county harris county cook county and dallas county the metropolitan areas with the largest mexican population is greater los angeles the chicago metropolitan area dallas fort worth metroplex and greater houston 106 mexican americans have long been the second largest minority group in the united states after african americans 107 the mexican american population was still concentrated in southwestern states such as arizona new mexico colorado texas and california in the late 1800s and early 1900s mexican americans starting moving from the southwestern to large northeastern and midwestern cities after world war ii large mexican american communities developed in cities in the northeast and midwest such as st louis chicago detroit cleveland and pittsburgh around 90 percent of mexicans in the united states live in urban areas 108 there is recent mexican enclaves in salt lake city and atlanta 109 the mexican population has been rapidly increasing in north carolina and georgia 110 mexican americans have the highest fertility rate in the united states while only 10 of the united states s population was mexican american in the year 2008 16 of the country s births were to mexican mothers mexican americans are generally younger than other racial and ethnic groups in the united states mexican americans also have more children than other races and hispanic groups in the united states 111 mexican born population over time edit year population 15 percentage of all us immigrants 1850 13 300 0 6 1860 27 500 0 7 1870 42 400 0 8 1880 68 400 1 0 1890 77 900 0 8 1900 103 400 1 0 1910 221 900 1 6 1920 486 400 3 5 1930 641 500 4 5 1940 357 800 3 1 1950 451 400 3 9 1960 575 900 5 9 1970 759 700 7 9 1980 2 199 200 15 6 1990 4 298 000 21 7 2000 9 177 500 29 5 2010 11 711 100 29 3 2019 10 931 900 24 3 culture edit main article mexicanization united states a quinceañera celebration in santa fe new mexico mexican american culture reflects the influences of spain mexico and indigenous cultures 112 family units and structures are typically larger among mexican americans parents and elders are treated with a high degree of respect by mexican americans mexican americans often celebrate quinceañeras 113 fashion edit see also zoot suit and mexican american women s fashion food and drink edit main article mexican american cuisine mexican americans have influenced american cuisine burritos enchiladas guacamole nachos tacos tamales and tortillas are regular in american vernacular 114 the cuisines of new mexican and tex mex are native to the cuisine of the southwestern united states and mexican cuisine has influenced californian cuisine 115 mexican american cuisine including dishes snacks seasonings and cultural traditions has significantly influenced american cuisine tortillas have risen to become the second most popular packaged bread while salsa consistently outsells ketchup as a condiment in the united states mexican cuisine is now recognized as one of the top three ethnic cuisines alongside italian cuisine and chinese cuisine in the preferences of americans additionally american fast food chains like chipotle mexican grill and taco bell have popularized the concept of mexican cuisine making it widely recognized in the united states 116 literature edit this section is an excerpt from mexican american literature edit mexican american literature is literature written by mexican americans in the united states although its origins can be traced back to the sixteenth century the bulk of mexican american literature dates from post 1848 and the united states annexation of large parts of mexico in the wake of the mexican american war today as a part of american literature in general this genre includes a vibrant and diverse set of narratives prompting critics to describe it as providing a new awareness of the historical and cultural independence of both northern and southern american hemispheres 117 chicano literature is an aspect of mexican american literature 118 music edit the popular radio format regional mexican includes mexican styles of music norteño ranchera conjunto son jarocho cumbia and mariachi 119 it also includes the indigenous and mexican american music styles of the new mexico music tejano music chicano rock chicano rap and cumbia rap which originate in the united states 120 mexican americans also have played and have continued to play significant roles in the production exhibition signification and reception of west coast hip hop since the 1980s african american rappers from los angeles including ice t and eazy e have helped mex...
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