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0 13 in recent history it was highly developed among the crow cheyenne arapaho and kiowa among others and remains strong among the crow cheyenne and arapaho citation needed the various nations with attested use divided by language family are citation needed algonquian anishinaabe arapaho blackfoot cheyenne cree gros ventre athabaskan apache mescalero lipan jicarilla and kiowa apache beaver navajo sarcee caddoan arikara pawnee wichita coahuiltecan atakapa coahuilteco karankawa tonkawa iroquoian haudenosaunee wendat numic comanche paiute shoshone ute plateau penutian sahaptian nez perce palus sahaptin umatilla piman akimel o odham tohono o odham and continuing into northern mexico puebloan hopi keresan zuni tanoan kiowa taos salishan coeur d alene flathead kalispel sanpoil spokane siouan dakota crow hidatsa lakota mandan nakoda nakota omaha osage oto ponca yuman maricopa unclassified cayuse melanie r mckay cody a cherokee deaf woman and hand talk speaker researcher motions that plains sign language is actually a family of inter related languages extending beyond the great plains she breaks down the regional languages as northeast hand talk including oneida sign language plains sign talk great basin sign language spoken for example by the ute and southwest hand talk she also notes a west coast language spoken by the chumash and she advances the idea that inuit sign language has some relation to this complex of manual north american indigenous languages unmentioned is coast salish sign language 2 within each of these languages she explains that nations will themselves have specific dialects such as the blackfoot 1 37 southwest hand talk is spoken by the navajo hopi apache and pueblo peoples citation needed however amongst the navajo and keres people there are two unrelated sign languages also spoken keresan sign language and by a navajo clan with a large number of deaf members navajo family sign 38 39 likewise plateau sign language may or may not be related to hand talk citation needed writing edit hand talk s writing system is picture writing in the form of petroglyphs pictographs and hieroglyphs 3 40 41 42 it is one of the few sign languages with a written form as mckay cody writes 2019 of petroglyphic rock writing although not necessarily linear the pieces are pictographic narratives 43 cherokee greek author thomas king dispels the myth that all literature in the americas was only oral in his book the truth about stories a native narrative in fact pictographic systems petroglyphs pictographs and hieroglyphics were used by a great many nations to commemorate events and to record stories 44 rock writing served a variety of purposes from narratives to marking territory to locator signs akin to modern day road signage the latter of which would be to indicate water sources trails through canyons and flash flood zone warnings 45 as hand talk is a visual spatial language its writing is similarly non linear and visual 46 in a study on writing in ute country núuchi tuvupu 47 mckay cody points out that since the hand talk spoken in the great basin positions the past to the left and future to the right as opposed to american sign language which positions the past and future as behind and in front of the signer respectively rock writing of the region often similarly represent narratives chronologically from left to right 48 in contrast plains and uto aztecan nations sign and thus read and write the past and future from right to left such as the lakota winter counts 49 elevation size and direction of individual petroglyphs also encode semantics such as temporal spatial and other concepts 50 51 the logographic picture writing of hand talk blurs the lines between art and writing many signs were written in the way they were signed for example the word for hungry involves an upward facing flat hand cutting across one s stomach written its glyph is of a human with a line through their stomach 52 however deviating from the standard glyph stylistic versions could also be drawn that are still readable to a hand talk speaker 53 hand talk was not isolated to petroglyphic rock writing anishinaabe wiigwaasabakoon and lakota winter counts are examples of writings on birch bark scrolls and buffalo hides respectively it is unknown what relation if any the hieroglyphic mi kmaw suckerfish script has with hand talk during the era of colonization plains sign language was also written on paper for example a letter from the parents of an interned kiowa student belo cozad was sent to carlisle indian school in pennsylvania in 1890 from his parents 54 phonology edit see also american sign language phonology garrick mallery s original 1880 handshape glossary 55 la mont west working under the guidance of alfred kroeber and charles f voegelin was an early pioneer in not only the phonological analysis of plains sign language but sign language phonology in general in his unpublished dissertation he developed a notation system and analysed plains sign language as having eighty two phonemes which he called kinemes each being able to be broken down further in terms of features he analyzed signs as morphologically complex that others such as william stokoe would analyze as monomorphemic and many of his findings were later rediscovered 56 his study of plains sign language was taking place at the same time as stokoe s seminal studies of asl phonology 13 85 west analyzed plains sign language as having non isolable phonemes classified as handshapes directions referents motions or motion patterns and dynamics four of these parallel the now widely recognized sign language parameters handshape orientation location and movement which arose out of stokoe s and other researchers later work on a variety of sign languages the fifth dynamic is unique to west s analysis though it may be present in other sign languages as well west argued that this analysis avoids the issue of having signs consisting of a single phoneme be composed of multiple morphemes 57 5 13 134 135 58 direction paralleling vowels there are eight distinctive directions including the directions of either touching or being parallel to the referent it can be combined with handshape to designate pointing or facing with the referent where it surfaces as placement or with movement i e motion dynamics where it specifies the direction of movement handshape paralleling consonants nine basic handshapes can be rounded or unrounded to form a total of 18 distinct handshapes referent numbering 40 these account for the greater phonemic inventory of plains sign language compared to most spoken languages this can be a part of the hand head leg body or an external referent motion patterns there are four motion patterns consisting of the shape of any movement 57 10 16 a phoneme cannot occur in isolation although a morpheme may consist of only one phoneme 57 6 dynamics edit there are twelve dynamic phonemes working similarly to suprasegmentals like stress or tone in that while every sign must be made with some speed or force only certain ones are marked dynamics can either change the way another phoneme like a handshape or motion is realized or modify the entire package or sub package 57 5 15 phoneme level dynamics edit motion dynamic by default the movement in a motion takes place at the elbow a motion may be articulated at the wrist instead in which case it is said to have an additional phoneme combined with it called the motion dynamic if wrist movement is done in addition to another movement the motion dynamic has been combined with a long extent dynamic 57 37 stress there are two phonemic stresses tense and lax as well as the default unmarked stress when combined with a handshape these correspond respectively to over and underextension of the hand s extended parts compared to the basic handshape with motions they characterize the motion as either strong and fast or weak and slow a motion can also combine with two stress dynamics with one specifying the tension of a motion as either tense or light and the other the speed when no stress dynamic is present motions default to an intermediate force and speed and tension is irrelevant 57 42 extent the long and short phonemic extents represent lengths in a variety of contexts with a referent they specify that the hand is held far from or close to the referent relative to the default distance with a motion they specify the length of the motion as long or short with the default length being mid length 57 42 lengthening a motion moves the articulation from the elbow to the shoulder 57 37 they may also combine with a stress dynamic or another extent dynamic in which case they exaggerate them citation needed rounding or diphthongizing this non phonemic dynamic serves two purposes it is used with the unrounded handshapes to generate the rounded handshapes like how voicing can generate voiced consonants from unvoiced ones citation needed it can also be used to diphthongize any two directions to form a compromise direction midway between them which west compared to doubly articulated consonants he noted that while doubly articulated consonants are usually described as separate phonemes the number of diphthongized pairs of directions in plains sign language is too great to grant them all phonemic status 57 39 package level dynamics edit hand specifiers by default a sign can be made with either hand though the right hand is more common however a sign can also be specified as being left handed made symmetrically with both hands made in parallel with both hands or made in parallel with both hands alternating 57 39 package repeaters a package can be repeated either exactly progressively starting where the last iteration ended or erratically with different random directions each time 57 40 phonotactics edit the smallest executable unit under west s analysis is called the package which he compared to the spoken syllable a package must have exactly one nucleus a handshape and a direction notated po a sub package is defined as a single non diphthongized direction and its associated non direction phonemes 57 70 there are almost no restrictions on the co occurrence of members of different phonemic classes within a package especially between handshapes directions motion classes and dynamics since some referents are quite rare it is difficult to tell whether there are limits to their combinatorial privileges 57 18 clusters of multiple phonemes of the same class within a package are in contrast heavily restricted handshapes rarely cluster referents never do and clustering between dynamics is limited by sub class and extremely infrequent motion patterns can only form clusters of two where one of the motion patterns must be oscillation vibration 57 42 the phonemic class with the most combinatorial privilege is the direction any two directions may be clustered using the diphthongizing dynamic 57 18 phonological processes edit the possible forms of signs are heavily constrained 59 71 most signs are one handed including all function signs 60 11 and these one handed signs can be divided into static signs or those with movement two handed signs are limited to signs where both hands are still where one hand stays still and the other moves or where both hands move when both hands move they move together in either parallel or intersecting motion 60 2 3 13 96 the prevalence of one handed signs in auxiliary sign languages like plains sign language may be typological as primary sign languages tend to prefer two handed signs 61 these constraints parallel the symmetry and dominance conditions later found in asl the symmetry condition requires that two handed signs in which both hands move must be symmetrical in motion while the dominance condition says that in two handed signs involving two different handshapes the passive hand is limited to certain movements and handshapes 13 96 preliminary analysis has shown that plains sign language seems to adhere to these conditions and also favours unmarked handshapes 13 139 140 west describes extensive allophony the conditioning environments of which can be highly specific 57 43 prosody edit users of plains sign language show extensive prosodic structure which west divided into syllable like packages and sub packages word like individual signs sentence like phrases and paragraph like utterances except for the package and in stark contrast to most deaf sign languages where signs often flow freely into each other the boundaries of each of these prosodic units are consistently marked with one of three junctures paragraph final juncture the hands are crossed or folded over the lower stomach if standing or in the lap if sitting phrase final juncture the hands move partway towards the paragraph final juncture position but recoil before reaching it two variants have the hands clasped near the chest or if sitting the palms lightly touched to the thighs though this variant is rarer either of the two variants can be made emphatic in which case a strong and audible clap or slap is made instead the emphatic variants are more common in the northern plains dialects of saskatchewan and northern alberta sign final juncture the hands recoil slightly toward the chest or shoulder or alternatively a slight pause is made the pause variant may be a marker of casual conversation as opposed to what speakers described as a more elegant register the paragraph final juncture exclusively marks the beginnings and ends of complete utterances each having approximately the length and content of a paragraph it may be dropped at the beginning of an utterance the paragraph and phrase final junctures can be used interchangeably between signs the paragraph final juncture is more frequently used to separate list items and complete sentence like ideas while the phrase final juncture is preferred after incomplete ideas or dangling clauses and is more likely to appear everywhere else any signs not separated by either the paragraph or phrase final juncture are near universally separated by the sign final juncture as well as packages within an open compound where multiple signs are used as a unit to refer to some idea or thing paragraph and phrase final junctures are extremely rare within open compounds the largest units not separated by a juncture at all are unit signs which can be a single package a package and a handshape or terminal referent a repeated package or a closed compound where multiple signs form a new sign 57 53 56 see also edit plateau sign language oneida sign language american sign language indigenous peoples of the americas indigenous peoples of the northeastern woodlands indigenous peoples of the great basin references edit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 mckay cody 2019 p 29 1 2 recognize indigenous sign languages reconnaître les langues des signes autochtones pdf bc hummingbird society for the deaf bchsd 9 march 2019 retrieved 9 march 2022 1 2 3 mckay cody melanie r 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