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example by requiring more witnesses before punishment or by permitting circumstantial evidence if they consider that to be more just 94 whilst jewish law requires two witnesses noachide law as recorded by rambam hilkhot melakhim 9 14 can accept the testimony of a single eyewitness as sufficient for use of the death penalty whilst a confession of guilt is not admissible as evidence before a jewish court it is a matter of considerable dispute as to whether or not it constitutes sufficient grounds for conviction in noachide courts 95 there is also some debate as to whether the ideal punishment for violation of these laws is the death penalty or if it is up to the court s discretion to decide which punishment is most fitting while a simple reading of the talmud might suggest that the ideal punishment is the death penalty a number of prominent commentators including rav yosef eliyahu henkin have argued that it is up to the courts to decide 96 subdivisions edit various rabbinic sources have different positions on the way the seven laws are to be subdivided in categories maimonides in his mishneh torah included the grafting of trees 91 like the talmud he interpreted the prohibition against homicide as including a prohibition against abortion 97 98 david ben solomon ibn abi zimra a commentator on maimonides expressed surprise that he left out castration and sorcery which were also listed in the talmud 99 maimonides also indicates that the descendants of ishmael and keturah are obligated to circumcise themselves on the eighth day but are not punished for failing to do so 100 the talmudist ulla wrote of 30 laws which the sons of noah took upon themselves he only lists three namely the three that the gentiles follow not to create a ketubah between males not to sell carrion or human flesh in the market and to respect the torah the rest of the laws are not listed 101 though the authorities seem to take it for granted that ulla s thirty commandments included the original seven an additional thirty laws are also possible from the reading 102 103 two different lists of the 30 laws exist both lists include an additional twenty three mitzvot which are subdivisions or extensions of the seven laws one from the 16th century work asarah maamarot by rabbi menahem azariah da fano and a second from the 10th century samuel ben hofni which was recently published from his judeo arabic writings after having been found in the cairo geniza 104 105 rabbi zvi hirsch chajes suggests menahem azariah of fano enumerated commandments are not related to the first seven nor based on the written torah but instead were passed down by oral tradition 106 ger toshav resident alien edit main article ger toshav during biblical times a gentile living in the land of israel who did not want to convert to judaism but accepted the seven laws of noah as binding upon himself was granted the legal status of ger toshav hebrew גר תושב ger foreigner or alien toshav resident lit resident alien 7 107 108 109 a ger toshav is therefore commonly deemed a righteous gentile hebrew חסיד אומות העולם chassid umot ha olam pious people of the world 5 7 11 17 18 19 and is assured of a place in the world to come olam ha ba 5 7 11 17 18 19 the rabbinic regulations regarding jewish gentile relations are modified in the case of a ger toshav 18 the accepted halakhic opinion is that the ger toshav must accept the seven noahide laws in the presence of three haberim men of authority 109 or according to the rabbinic tradition before a beth din jewish rabbinical court 18 he will receive certain legal protection and privileges from the jewish community and there is an obligation to render him aid when in need the restrictions on having a gentile do work for a jew on the shabbat are also greater when the gentile is a ger toshav 18 according to the jewish philosopher and professor menachem kellner s study on maimonidean texts 1991 a ger toshav could be a transitional stage on the way to becoming a righteous alien hebrew גר צדק ger tzedek i e a full convert to judaism 110 he conjectures that according to maimonides only a full ger tzedek would be found during the messianic era 110 furthermore kellner criticizes the assumption within orthodox judaism that there is an ontological divide between jews and gentiles 111 which he believes is contrary to what maimonides thought and the torah teaches 111 stating that gentiles as well as jews are fully created in the image of god 111 according to christine hayes an american scholar of ancient judaism and early christianity serving as the sterling professor of religious studies in classical judaica at yale university the gerim were not necessarily gentile converts in the hebrew bible whether in the modern or rabbinic sense 112 nonetheless they were granted many rights and privileges when they lived in the land of israel 112 for example they could offer sacrifices actively participate in israelite politics keep their distinct ethnic identity for many generations inherit tribal allotments etc 112 maimonides view and his critics edit during the golden age of jewish culture in the iberian peninsula the medieval jewish philosopher and rabbi maimonides 1135 1204 wrote in the halakhic legal code mishneh torah tractate hilkhot melakhim that gentiles non jews must perform exclusively the seven laws of noah and might study their seven laws 113 he also states that if gentiles willingly perform any commandment besides the seven laws of noah like charity or a sacrifice korban according to the correct halakhic procedure they are not prevented from doing so 114 however gentiles are forbidden to rest on the shabbat 115 according to maimonides teaching non jews to follow the seven laws of noah is incumbent on all jews a commandment in and of itself 74 nevertheless the majority of rabbinic authorities over the centuries have rejected maimonides opinion and the dominant halakhic consensus has always been that jews are not required to spread the noahide laws to non jews 74 maimonides held that gentiles may have a part in the world to come olam ha ba just by observing the seven laws of noah and accepting them as divinely revealed to moses 2 19 32 116 according to maimonides such non jews achieve the status of chassid umot ha olam pious people of the world 19 and are different from those which solely keep the noahide laws out of moral ethical reasoning alone 19 he wrote in hilkhot m lakhim 19 anyone who accepts upon himself and carefully observes the seven commandments is of the righteous of the nations of the world and has a portion in the world to come this is as long as he accepts and performs them because he truly believes that it was the holy one blessed be he who commanded them in the torah and that it was through moses our teacher we were informed that the sons of noah had already been commanded to observe them but if he observes them because he convinced himself then he is not considered a resident convert and is not of the righteous of the nations of the world but merely one of their wise 117 some later editions of the mishneh torah differ by one letter and read nor one of their wise men the latter reading is narrower in either reading maimonides appears to exclude philosophical noahides from being righteous gentiles 19 according to him a truly righteous gentile follows the seven laws because they are divinely revealed and thus are followed out of obedience to god 19 118 119 the 15th century sephardic orthodox rabbi yosef caro one of the early acharonim and author of the shulchan aruch rejected maimonides denial of the access to the world to come to the gentiles who obey the noahide laws guided only by their reason as anti rationalistic and unfounded asserting that there is not any justification to uphold such a view in the talmud 116 the 17th century sephardic dutch philosopher baruch spinoza read maimonides as saying nor one of their wise men and accused him of being narrow and particularistic 116 other jewish philosophers influenced by spinoza such as moses mendelssohn and hermann cohen also have formulated more inclusive and universal interpretations of the seven laws of noah 116 118 the 18th century ashkenazi german philosopher moses mendelssohn one of the leading exponents of the jewish enlightenment haskalah strongly disagreed with maimonides formulation of the subject in the mishneh torah tractate hilkhot melakhim citing a letter sent by maimonides to the jewish translator abraham ben samuel ibn hasdai ha levi of barcelona and instead contended that in conformity to the letter itself gentiles which observe the seven noahide laws out of ethical moral or philosophical reasoning without necessarily believing in the jewish monotheistic conception of god or knowing the torah retained the status of righteous gentiles and would still achieve salvation 120 121 according to steven schwarzschild maimonides position has its source in his adoption of aristotle s skeptical attitude towards the ability of reason to arrive at moral truths 122 and many of the most outstanding spokesmen of judaism themselves dissented sharply from this position which is individual and certainly somewhat eccentric in comparison to other jewish thinkers 123 the 20th century ashkenazi orthodox rabbi abraham isaac kook first chief rabbi of the british mandate of palestine cited many rabbinical authorities in ruling leniently that a non jew who follows the seven commandments due to philosophical conviction rather than revelation what maimonides calls one of their wise men would also have a part in the world to come olam ha ba this would be in line with maimonides general approach he said that following philosophical wisdom spiritually advances an individual even more than righteous behaviour 124 modern noahide movement edit main article noahidism further information jewish fundamentalism and religious zionism menachem mendel schneerson encouraged his followers on many occasions to preach the seven laws of noah 11 74 devoting some of his addresses to the subtleties of this code 69 70 125 since the 1990s 11 17 orthodox jewish rabbis from israel most notably those affiliated to chabad lubavitch and religious zionist organizations 11 17 126 including the temple institute 11 17 126 have set up a modern noahide movement 11 17 126 these noahide organizations led by religious zionist and orthodox rabbis are aimed at non jews to proselytize among them and commit them to follow the noahide laws 11 17 126 these religious zionist and orthodox rabbis that guide the modern noahide movement who are often affiliated with the third temple movement 11 17 126 are accused of expounding a racist and supremacist ideology which consists in the belief that the jewish people are god s chosen nation and racially superior to non jews 11 17 126 and mentor noahides because they believe that the messianic era will begin with the rebuilding of the third temple on the temple mount in jerusalem to re institute the jewish priesthood along with the practice of ritual sacrifices and the establishment of a jewish theocracy in israel supported by communities of noahides 11 17 126 in 1990 meir kahane a convicted terrorist and founder of the israeli ultra nationalist political party kach was the keynote speaker at the first international conference of the descendants of noah the first noahide gathering in fort worth texas 11 17 126 after the assassination of meir kahane that same year the temple institute which advocates rebuilding the third jewish temple on the temple mount in jerusalem started to promote the noahide laws as well 11 126 public recognition edit the chabad lubavitch movement has been one of the most active in noahide outreach believing that there is spiritual and societal value for non jews in at least simply acknowledging the noahide laws 11 17 74 127 in 1982 chabad lubavitch had a reference to the noahide laws enshrined in a u s presidential proclamation the proclamation 4921 128 signed by the u s president ronald reagan 128 the united states congress recalling house joint resolution 447 and in celebration of schneerson s 80th birthday proclaimed 4 april 1982 as a national day of reflection 128 in 1989 and 1990 chabad lubavitch had another reference to the noahide laws enshrined in a u s presidential proclamation the proclamation 5956 129 signed by then u s president george h w bush 129 the united states congress recalling house joint resolution 173 and in celebration of schneerson s 87th birthday proclaimed 16 april 1989 and 6 april 1990 as education day u s a 129 in january 2004 the spiritual leader of the druze community in israel sheikh mowafak tarif met with a representative of chabad lubavitch to sign a declaration calling on all non jews in israel to observe the noahide laws the mayor of the arab city of shefa amr shfaram where muslim christian and druze communities live side by side also signed the document 130 in march 2016 the sephardic chief rabbi of israel yitzhak yosef declared during a sermon that jewish law requires that only non jews who follow the noahide laws are allowed to live in israel 131 132 according to jewish law it s forbidden for a non jew to live in the land of israel unless he has accepted the seven noahide laws if the non jew is unwilling to accept these laws then we can send him to saudi arabia when there will be full true redemption we will do this 131 yosef further added non jews shouldn t live in the land of israel if our hand were firm if we had the power to rule then non jews must not live in israel but our hand is not firm who otherwise be the servants who will be our helpers this is why we leave them in israel 133 yosef s sermon sparked outrage in israel and was fiercely criticized by several human rights associations ngos and members of the knesset 131 jonathan greenblatt anti defamation league s ceo and national director and carole nuriel anti defamation league s israel office acting director issued a strong denunciation of yosef s sermon 131 133 the statement by chief rabbi yosef is shocking and unacceptable it is unconscionable that the chief rabbi an official representative of the state of israel would express such intolerant and ignorant views about israel s non jewish population including the millions of non jewish citizens as a spiritual leader rabbi yosef should be using his influence to preach tolerance and compassion towards others regardless of their faith and not seek to exclude and demean a large segment of israelis we call upon the chief rabbi to retract his statements and apologize for any offense caused by his comments 133 contemporary status edit historically some rabbinic opinions consider non jews not only not obliged to adhere to all the remaining laws of the torah but actually forbidden from observing them 134 135 noahide law differs radically from roman law for gentiles jus gentium if only because the latter was enforceable judicial policy rabbinic judaism has...
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