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ed surface which the soviets responded to a few months later with images from on its surface from luna 9 in 1967 america s surveyor 3 gathered information about the moon s surface that would prove crucial to the apollo 11 mission that landed humans on the moon two years later 4 the first interstellar probe was voyager 1 launched 5 september 1977 it entered interstellar space on 25 august 2012 5 followed by its twin voyager 2 on 5 november 2018 6 nine other countries have successfully launched satellites using their own launch vehicles france 1965 7 japan 8 and china 1970 9 the united kingdom 1971 10 india 1980 11 israel 1988 12 iran 2009 13 north korea 2012 14 and south korea 2022 15 design edit in spacecraft design the united states air force considers a vehicle to consist of the mission payload and the bus or platform the bus provides physical structure thermal control electrical power attitude control and telemetry tracking and commanding 16 jpl divides the flight system of a spacecraft into subsystems 17 these include structure edit the physical backbone structure which provides overall mechanical integrity of the spacecraft ensures spacecraft components are supported and can withstand launch loads data handling edit this is sometimes referred to as the command and data subsystem it is often responsible for command sequence storage maintaining the spacecraft clock collecting and reporting spacecraft telemetry data e g spacecraft health collecting and reporting mission data e g photographic images attitude determination and control edit see also attitude control system this system is mainly responsible for the correct spacecraft s orientation in space attitude despite external disturbance gravity gradient effects magnetic field torques solar radiation and aerodynamic drag in addition it may be required to reposition movable parts such as antennas and solar arrays 18 entry descent and landing edit integrated sensing incorporates an image transformation algorithm to interpret the immediate imagery land data perform a real time detection and avoidance of terrain hazards that may impede safe landing and increase the accuracy of landing at a desired site of interest using landmark localization techniques integrated sensing completes these tasks by relying on pre recorded information and cameras to understand its location and determine its position and whether it is correct or needs to make any corrections localization the cameras are also used to detect any possible hazards whether it is increased fuel consumption or it is a physical hazard such as a poor landing spot in a crater or cliff side that would make landing very not ideal hazard assessment landing on hazardous terrain edit in planetary exploration missions involving robotic spacecraft there are three key parts in the processes of landing on the surface of the planet to ensure a safe and successful landing 19 this process includes an entry into the planetary gravity field and atmosphere a descent through that atmosphere towards an intended targeted region of scientific value and a safe landing that guarantees the integrity of the instrumentation on the craft is preserved while the robotic spacecraft is going through those parts it must also be capable of estimating its position compared to the surface in order to ensure reliable control of itself and its ability to maneuver well the robotic spacecraft must also efficiently perform hazard assessment and trajectory adjustments in real time to avoid hazards to achieve this the robotic spacecraft requires accurate knowledge of where the spacecraft is located relative to the surface localization what may pose as hazards from the terrain hazard assessment and where the spacecraft should presently be headed hazard avoidance without the capability for operations for localization hazard assessment and avoidance the robotic spacecraft becomes unsafe and can easily enter dangerous situations such as surface collisions undesirable fuel consumption levels and or unsafe maneuvers telecommunications edit components in the telecommunications subsystem include radio antennas transmitters and receivers these may be used to communicate with ground stations on earth or with other spacecraft 20 electrical power edit the supply of electric power on spacecraft generally come from photovoltaic solar cells or from a radioisotope thermoelectric generator other components of the subsystem include batteries for storing power and distribution circuitry that connects components to the power sources 21 temperature control and protection from the environment edit main article spacecraft thermal control spacecraft are often protected from temperature fluctuations with insulation some spacecraft use mirrors and sunshades for additional protection from solar heating they also often need shielding from micrometeoroids and orbital debris 22 propulsion edit main article spacecraft propulsion spacecraft propulsion is a method that allows a spacecraft to travel through space by generating thrust to push it forward 23 however there is not one universally used propulsion system monopropellant bipropellant ion propulsion etc each propulsion system generates thrust in different ways with each system having advantages and disadvantages most spacecraft propulsion today is based on rocket engines the general idea behind rocket engines is that when an oxidizer meets the fuel source there is explosive release of energy and heat at high speeds which propels the spacecraft forward this happens due to one basic principle known as newton s third law according to newton to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction as the energy and heat is being released from the back of the spacecraft gas particles are pushed that allow the spacecraft to propel forward the main reason behind the use of rocket engines today is because rockets are the most powerful form of propulsion monopropellant edit for a propulsion system to work there is usually an oxidizer line and a fuel line this way the spacecraft propulsion is controlled but in a monopropellant propulsion there is no need for an oxidizer line and only the system only requires the fuel line 24 this works due to the oxidizer being chemically bonded into the fuel molecule itself but for the propulsion system to be controlled the combustion of the fuel can only occur due to the presence of a catalyst this is advantageous due to making the rocket engine lighter less expensive easy to control and more reliable but the disadvantage is that the chemical is dangerous to manufacture store and transport bipropellant edit a bipropellant propulsion system is a rocket engine that uses a liquid propellant 25 this means both the oxidizer and fuel line are in liquid states this system is unique because it requires no ignition system the two liquids would spontaneously combust as soon as they come into contact with each other thus producing the propulsion to push the spacecraft forward the main benefit for having this technology is that these kinds of liquids have relatively high density which allow the volume of the propellent tank to be small therefore increasing space efficacy the downside is the same as that of monopropellant propulsion system dangerous to manufacture store and transport ion edit an ion propulsion system is a type of engine that generates thrust by the means of electron bombardment or the acceleration of ions 26 by shooting high energy electrons to a propellant atom neutrally charged it removes electrons from the propellant atom resulting in the propellant atom becoming positively charged the positively charged ions running at high voltages are guided through positively charged grids that contain thousands of precisely aligned holes the aligned positively charged ions accelerate through a negatively charged accelerator grid that further increases their speed up to 40 kilometres per second 90 000 mph the momentum of these ions provides the thrust to propel the spacecraft the advantage of having this kind of propulsion is that it is incredibly efficient in maintaining constant velocity which is needed for deep space travel however the amount of thrust produced is extremely low and it needs substantial electrical power to operate mechanical devices edit mechanical components often need to be moved for deployment after launch or prior to landing in addition to the use of motors many one time movements are controlled by pyrotechnic devices 27 robotic vs uncrewed spacecraft edit robotic spacecraft are specifically designed system for a specific hostile environment 28 due to their specification for a particular environment it varies greatly in complexity and capabilities while an uncrewed spacecraft is a spacecraft without personnel or crew and is operated by automatic proceeds with an action without human intervention or remote control with human intervention the term uncrewed spacecraft does not imply that the spacecraft is robotic citation needed robotic rover robotic spacecraft use telemetry to radio back to earth acquired data and vehicle status information although generally referred to as remotely controlled or telerobotic the earliest orbital spacecraft such as sputnik 1 and explorer 1 did not receive control signals from earth soon after these first spacecraft command systems were developed to allow remote control from the ground increased autonomy is important for distant probes where the light travel time prevents rapid decision and control from earth newer probes such as cassini huygens and the mars exploration rovers are highly autonomous and use on board computers to operate independently for extended periods of time 29 30 space probes edit main article space probe further information list of solar system probes a space probe is a robotic spacecraft that does not orbit earth but instead explores the outer space space probes have different sets of scientific instruments on board a space probe may approach the moon travel through interplanetary space flyby orbit or land on other planetary bodies or enter interstellar space space probes send collected data to earth space probes can also gather materials from its target and return it to earth 31 32 once a probe has left the vicinity of earth its trajectory will likely take it along an orbit around the sun similar to the earth s orbit to reach another planet the simplest practical method is a hohmann transfer orbit more complex techniques such as gravitational slingshots can be more fuel efficient though they may require the probe to spend more time in transit some high delta v missions such as those with high inclination changes can only be performed using gravitational slingshots a technique using very little propulsion but requiring a considerable amount of time is to follow a trajectory on the interplanetary transport network 33 space telescopes edit main article space telescope further information list of space telescopes a space telescope or space observatory is a telescope in outer space used to observe astronomical objects space telescopes avoid the filtering and distortion of electromagnetic radiation which they observe and avoid light pollution which ground based observatories encounter they are divided into two types satellites which map the entire sky astronomical survey and satellites which focus on selected astronomical objects or parts of the sky and beyond space telescopes are distinct from earth imaging satellites which point toward earth for satellite imaging applied for weather analysis reconnaissance and other types of information gathering cargo spacecraft edit the six currently active space station cargo vehicles clockwise from top left progress cargo dragon 2 htv x cygnus xl enhanced cygnus tianzhou further information comparison of space station cargo vehicles cargo or resupply spacecraft are robotic vehicles designed to transport supplies such as food propellant and equipment to crewed space stations this distinguishes them from space probes which are primarily focused on scientific exploration automated cargo spacecraft have been servicing space stations since 1978 supporting missions like salyut 6 salyut 7 mir the international space station iss and the tiangong space station currently the iss relies on four types of cargo spacecraft the japanese htv x the russian progress 34 along with the american cargo dragon 2 35 36 and cygnus 37 the european automated transfer vehicle was previously used between 2008 and 2015 38 china s tiangong space station is solely supplied by the tianzhou 39 40 41 future cargo spacecraft edit the american dream chaser is under development from 2004 as of 2025 its first orbital test flight is expected in 2026 but it is no longer contracted to resupply missions to the iss 42 since 2023 esa has been pursuing the leo cargo return service initiative to develop one or more cargo spacecraft capable of returning to earth 43 china is developing two new cargo spacecraft to complement the tianzhou in supporting the tiangong space station qingzhou is a small pressurized spacecraft with no heat shield while haolong is a reusable spaceplane 44 45 46 see also edit spaceflight portal beacon mode service geosynchronous satellite human spaceflight list of passive satellites timeline of solar system exploration references edit asif siddiqi sputnik and the soviet space challenge university press of florida 2003 isbn 081302627x p 96 whitehouse david 28 october 2002 first dog in space died within hours bbc news world edition archived from the original on 17 july 2013 retrieved 10 may 2013 the animal launched on a one way trip on board sputnik 2 in november 1957 was said to have died painlessly in orbit about a week after blast off now it has been revealed she died from overheating and panic just a few hours after the mission started sputnik 2 russian space web 3 november 2012 archived from the original on 2 february 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