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med anthony hope s ruritanian adventure novel the prisoner of zenda 1894 children s literature edit see also children s literature golden age literature for children developed as a separate genre some works become internationally known such as those of lewis carroll alice s adventures in wonderland 1865 and its sequel through the looking glass robert louis stevenson s treasure island 1883 is the classic pirate adventure rudyard kipling wrote stories for children inspired by his childhood in india and other topics including classics like the jungle book the second jungle book kim and captains courageous at the end of the victorian era and leading into the edwardian era beatrix potter was an author and illustrator best known for her children s books which featured animal characters in her thirties potter published the highly successful children s book the tale of peter rabbit in 1902 potter eventually went on to publish 23 children s books and became a wealthy woman victorian poetry edit see also english poetry victorian poetry alfred lord tennyson ca 1863 the leading poets during the victorian period were alfred lord tennyson robert browning elizabeth barrett browning and matthew arnold the poetry of this period was heavily influenced by the romantics but also went off in its own directions 161 particularly notable was the development of the dramatic monologue a form used by many poets in this period but perfected by robert browning literary criticism in the 20th century gradually drew attention to the links between victorian poetry and modernism 162 tennyson was poet laureate of the united kingdom during much of queen victoria s reign he was described by t s eliot as the greatest master of metrics as well as melancholia and as having the finest ear of any english poet since milton 163 matthew arnold s reputation as a poet has within the past few decades plunged drastically 164 dante gabriel rossetti was a poet illustrator painter and translator he founded the pre raphaelite brotherhood in 1848 with william holman hunt and john everett millais 165 rossetti s art was characterised by its sensuality and its medieval revivalism 166 arthur clough and george meredith are two other important minor poets of this era 151 167 towards the end of the 19th century english poets began to take an interest in french symbolism and victorian poetry entered a decadent fin de siècle phase 168 two groups of poets emerged in the 1890s the yellow book poets who adhered to the tenets of aestheticism including algernon charles swinburne oscar wilde and arthur symons and the rhymers club group that included ernest dowson lionel johnson and irishman william butler yeats yeats went on to become an important modernist in the 20th century 169 also in 1896 a e housman published at his own expense a shropshire lad 170 writers of comic verse included the dramatist librettist poet and illustrator w s gilbert who is best known for his fourteen comic operas produced in collaboration with the composer sir arthur sullivan of which the most famous include h m s pinafore and the pirates of penzance 171 novelist thomas hardy wrote poetry throughout his career but he did not publish his first collection until 1898 so that he tends to be treated as a 20th century poet now regarded as a major poet gerard manley hopkins s poems were published posthumously by robert bridges in 1918 172 american poetry edit main article american poetry america also produced major poets in the 19th century such as emily dickinson and walt whitman america s two greatest 19th century poets could hardly have been more different in temperament and style whitman was a poetic innovator his major work was leaves of grass in which he uses a free flowing verse and lines of irregular length to depict the all inclusiveness of american democracy emily dickinson on the other hand lived the sheltered life of a genteel unmarried woman in small town amherst massachusetts within its formal structure her poetry is ingenious witty exquisitely wrought and psychologically penetrating her work was unconventional for its day and little of it was published during her lifetime victorian drama edit main article theatre in the victorian era see also english drama victorian era nineteenth century theatre theatre in britain and theatre of the united kingdom victorian era 1837 1901 gilbert and sullivan s h m s pinafore a change came in the victorian era with a profusion on the london stage of farces musical burlesques extravaganzas and comic operas that competed with productions of shakespeare s plays and serious drama by dramatists like james planché and thomas william robertson in 1855 the german reed entertainments began a process of elevating the level of formerly risqué musical theatre in britain that culminated in the famous series of comic operas by gilbert and sullivan and was followed by the 1890s with the first edwardian musical comedies the length of runs in the theatre changed rapidly during the victorian period as transport improved poverty in london diminished and street lighting made for safer travel at night the number of potential patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously plays could run longer and still draw in the audiences leading to better profits and improved production values the first play to achieve 500 consecutive performances was the london comedy our boys opening in 1875 its record of 1 362 performances was bested in 1892 by charley s aunt 173 several of gilbert and sullivan s comic operas broke the 500 performance barrier beginning with h m s pinafore in 1878 and alfred cellier and b c stephenson s 1886 hit dorothy ran for 931 performances after w s gilbert oscar wilde became the leading poet and dramatist of the late victorian period wilde s plays in particular stand apart from the many now forgotten plays of victorian times and have a much closer relationship to those of the edwardian dramatists such as irish playwright george bernard shaw whose career began in the last decade of the 19th century wilde s 1895 comic masterpiece the importance of being earnest holds an ironic mirror to the aristocracy and displays a mastery of wit and paradoxical wisdom 20th century edit main articles twentieth century english literature american literature scottish literature irish literature and welsh literature in english modernism beginnings c 1901 1923 edit main articles literary modernism modernist poetry and modernist poetry in english joseph conrad 1919 or after english literary modernism developed in the early twentieth century out of a general sense of disillusionment with victorian era attitudes of certainty conservatism and belief in the idea of objective truth 174 the movement was influenced by the ideas of charles darwin ernst mach henri bergson friedrich nietzsche james g frazer karl marx das kapital 1867 and the psychoanalytic theories of sigmund freud among others 175 the continental art movements of impressionism and later cubism were also important 176 important literary precursors of modernism were fyodor dostoevsky walt whitman charles baudelaire arthur rimbaud and august strindberg 177 a major british lyric poet of the first decades of the twentieth century was thomas hardy though not a modernist hardy was an important transitional figure between the victorian era and the twentieth century a major novelist of the late nineteenth century hardy lived well into the third decade of the twentieth century though he only published poetry in this period another significant transitional figure between victorians and modernists the late nineteenth century novelist henry james continued to publish major novels into the twentieth century including the golden bowl 1904 polish born modernist novelist joseph conrad published his first important works heart of darkness in 1899 and lord jim in 1900 however the victorian gerard manley hopkins s highly original poetry was not published until 1918 long after his death while the career of another major modernist poet irishman w b yeats began late in the victorian era yeats was one of the foremost figures of twentieth century english literature but while modernism was to become an important literary movement in the early decades of the new century there were also many fine writers who like thomas hardy were not modernists during the early decades of the twentieth century the georgian poets like rupert brooke and walter de la mare maintained a conservative approach to poetry by combining romanticism sentimentality and hedonism another georgian poet edward thomas 178 is one of the first world war poets along with wilfred owen rupert brooke isaac rosenberg and siegfried sassoon irish playwrights george bernard shaw j m synge and seán o casey were influential in british drama shaw s career began in the last decade of the nineteenth century while synge s plays belong to the first decade of the twentieth century synge s most famous play the playboy of the western world caused outrage and riots when it was first performed in dublin in 1907 179 george bernard shaw turned the edwardian theatre into an arena for debate about important political and social issues 180 novelists who are not considered modernists include h g wells john galsworthy nobel prize in literature 1932 whose works include the forsyte saga 1906 1921 and e m forster though forster s work is frequently regarded as containing both modernist and victorian elements 181 forster s most famous work a passage to india 1924 reflected challenges to imperialism while his earlier novels examined the restrictions and hypocrisy of edwardian society in england carrying over from the nineteenth century rudyard kipling remained arguably the most popular british writer of the early years of the twentieth century in addition to w b yeats other important early modernist poets were the american born poet t s eliot eliot became a british citizen in 1927 but was born and educated in america his most famous works are prufrock 1915 the waste land 1922 and four quartets 1935 1942 amongst the novelists after joseph conrad other important early modernists include dorothy richardson whose novel pointed roof 1915 is one of the earliest examples of the stream of consciousness technique and d h lawrence who published the rainbow in 1915 though it was immediately seized by the police and women in love in 1920 182 then in 1922 irishman james joyce s important modernist novel ulysses appeared ulysses has been called a demonstration and summation of the entire movement 183 james joyce 1918 modernism continues 1923 1939 edit virginia woolf 1927 important british writers between the world wars include the scottish poet hugh macdiarmid who began publishing in the 1920s and novelist virginia woolf who was an influential feminist and a major stylistic innovator associated with the stream of consciousness technique in novels like mrs dalloway 1925 and to the lighthouse 1927 t s eliot had begun this attempt to revive poetic drama with sweeney agonistes in 1932 and this was followed by others including three further plays after the war in parenthesis a modernist epic poem based on author david jones s experience of world war i was published in 1937 an important development beginning in the 1930s and 1940s was a tradition of working class novels actually written by working class background writers among these were coal miner jack jones james hanley whose father was a stoker and who also went to sea as a young man and coal miners lewis jones from south wales and harold heslop from county durham 184 aldous huxley published his famous dystopia brave new world in 1932 the same year as john cowper powys s a glastonbury romance 185 samuel beckett published his first major work the novel murphy in 1938 this same year graham greene s first major novel brighton rock was published then in 1939 james joyce s published finnegans wake in which he creates a special language to express the consciousness of a dreaming character 186 it was also in 1939 that yeats died british poet w h auden was another significant modernist in the 1930s late modernism and post modernism 1940 2000 edit main article late modernism though some have seen modernism ending by around 1939 187 with regard to english literature when if modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from victorianism to modernism occurred 188 in fact a number of modernists were still living and publishing in the 1950s and 1960 including t s eliot dorothy richardson and ezra pound furthermore basil bunting born in 1900 189 published little until briggflatts in 1965 and samuel beckett born in ireland in 1906 continued to produce significant works until the 1980s though some view him as a post modernist 190 among british writers in the 1940s and 1950s were poet dylan thomas and novelist graham greene whose works span the 1930s to the 1980s while evelyn waugh w h auden continued publishing into the 1960s anthony powell began his 12 volume cycle a dance to the music of time in 1951 and continued writing and publishing it until the final volume appeared in 1975 postmodern literature is both a continuation of the experimentation championed by writers of the modernist period relying heavily for example on fragmentation paradox questionable narrators etc and a reaction against enlightenment ideas implicit in modernist literature postmodern literature like postmodernism as a whole is difficult to define and there is little agreement on the exact characteristics scope and importance of postmodern literature among postmodern writers are the americans henry miller william s burroughs joseph heller kurt vonnegut william gaddis hunter s thompson truman capote thomas pynchon and david foster wallace novel edit george orwell left and aldous huxley right in 1947 malcolm lowry published under the volcano while george orwell s satire of totalitarianism nineteen eighty four was published in 1949 other novelists writing in the 1950s and later were anthony powell whose twelve volume cycle of novels a dance to the music of time is a comic examination of movements and manners power and passivity in english political cultural and military life in the mid 20th century nobel prize laureate william golding s allegorical novel lord of the flies 1954 explores how culture created by man fails using as an example a group of british schoolboys marooned on a deserted island graham greene s novels the heart of the matter 1948 and the end of the affair 1951 used catholicism to explore moral dilemmas in human relationships continuing themes found in his earlier novels philosopher iris murdoch was a prolific writer of novels throughout the second half of the 20th century that deal especially with sexual relationships morality and the power of the unconscious scottish writer muriel spark pushed the boundaries of realism in her novels the prime of mi...
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