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arabic maghrebi arabic spoken in the maghreb region algerian arabic libyan arabic moroccan arabic tunisian arabic mesopotamian arabic baghdad arabic moslawi arabic egyptian arabic sudanese arabic and many others in addition many speakers use modern standard arabic in education and formal settings therefore in arabic speaking communities diglossia is frequent armenian edit see also armenian orthography reform the armenian language is a pluricentric language with two standard varieties eastern armenian and western armenian which have developed as separate literary languages since the eighteenth century 9 prior to this almost all armenian literature was written in classical armenian which is now solely used as a liturgical language citation needed eastern and western armenian can also refer to the two major dialectal blocks into which the various non standard dialects of armenian are categorized eastern armenian is the official language of the republic of armenia it is also spoken with dialectal variations by iranian armenians armenians in karabakh see karabakh dialect and in the armenian diaspora especially in the former soviet union russia georgia ukraine western armenian is spoken mainly in the armenian diaspora especially in the middle east france the us and canada citation needed additionally armenian is written in two standard orthographies classical and reformed armenian orthography the former is used by practically all speakers of western armenian and by armenians in iran while the latter which was developed in soviet armenia in the 20th century is used in armenia and nagorno karabakh citation needed catalan edit main article catalan dialects in the modern era catalan is a pluricentric language with differences primarily in pronunciation and vocabulary this language is internationally known as catalan as in ethnologue this is also the most commonly used name in catalonia but also in andorra and the balearic islands probably due to the prestige of the central catalan dialect spoken in and around barcelona citation needed however in the valencian community the official name of this language is valencian one reason for this is political see serbo croatian for a similar situation but this variant does have its own literary tradition that dates back to the reconquista citation needed catalan is also spoken by a small community in alghero sardinia where the variety is known as algherese although mutually intelligible with other varieties of catalan valencian has lexical peculiarities and minor differences in its spelling rules which are set out by the acadèmia valenciana de la llengua since 1998 10 need quotation to verify however this institution recognizes that catalan and valencian are varieties of the same language for their part there are specific varieties in the two major balearic islands mallorcan catalan mallorquí in mallorca menorcan menorquí in menorca ibizan eivissenc in ibiza citation needed chinese edit main article varieties of chinese until the mid 20th century most chinese people spoke only their local varieties of chinese these varieties had diverged widely from the written form used by scholars literary chinese which was modelled on the language of the chinese classics as a practical measure officials of the ming and qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on northern varieties known as guānhuà 官話 literally speech of officials known as mandarin in english after the officials knowledge of this language was thus essential for an official career but it was never formally defined 11 in the early years of the 20th century literary chinese was replaced as the written standard by written vernacular chinese which was based on northern dialects in the 1930s a standard national language guóyǔ chinese 國語 lit national language was adopted with its pronunciation based on the beijing dialect but with vocabulary also drawn from other northern varieties 12 after the establishment of the people s republic of china in 1949 the standard was known as pǔtōnghuà chinese 普通话 lit common speech but was defined in the same way as guóyǔ in the republic of china now governing taiwan 11 it also became one of the official languages of singapore under the name huáyǔ chinese 华语 lit chinese language although the three standards remain close they have diverged to some extent most mandarin speakers in taiwan and singapore came from the southeast coast of china where the local dialects lack the retroflex initials tʂ tʂʰ ʂ found in northern dialects so that many speakers in those places do not distinguish them from the apical sibilants ts tsʰ s similarly retroflex codas erhua are typically avoided in taiwan and singapore there are also differences in vocabulary with taiwanese mandarin absorbing loanwords from taiwanese hakka and japanese and singaporean mandarin borrowing words from english malay hokkien and other southern varieties of chinese 13 14 eastern south slavic edit further information eastern south slavic macedonian language relationship to bulgarian bulgarian language relationship to macedonian political views on the macedonian language bulgarian dialects and banat bulgarian dialect see also bulgarian nationalism bulgarian irredentism macedonian nationalism and accession of north macedonia to the european union this section may contain original research please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations statements consisting only of original research should be removed may 2026 learn how and when to remove this message some linguists and scholars mostly from bulgaria and greece but some also from other countries 15 16 consider eastern south slavic to be a pluricentric language with four standards bulgarian based on the rup balkan and moesian eastern bulgarian dialects macedonian based on the western and central macedonian dialects gorani based on the torlakian dialects and paulician including banat bulgarian 17 politicians and nationalists from bulgaria are likely to refer to this entire grouping as bulgarian and to be particularly hostile to the notion that macedonian is an autonomous language separate from bulgarian which macedonian politicians and citizens tend to claim 17 as of 2021 the hypothesis that eastern south slavic greater bulgarian bulgaro macedonian or simply bulgarian is a pluricentric language with several mutually intelligible official standards in the same way that serbo croatian is and czechoslovak used to be clarification needed has not yet been fully developed in linguistics it is a popular idea in bulgarian politics but an unpopular one in north macedonia 17 english edit main articles list of dialects of english regional accents of english and list of countries by english speaking population english is a pluricentric language 18 19 with differences in pronunciation vocabulary spelling etc between each of the constituent countries of the united kingdom north america the caribbean ireland english speaking african countries singapore india and oceania educated native english speakers using their version of one of the standard forms of english are almost completely mutually intelligible but non standard forms present significant dialectal variations and are marked by reduced intelligibility citation needed british and american english are the two most commonly taught varieties in the education systems where english is taught as a second language british english tends to predominate in europe and the former british colonies of the west indies africa and asia where english is not the first language of the majority of the population the falkland islands a british territory off the southeast coast of south america with english as its native language have their own dialect while british english is the standard in contrast american english tends to dominate instruction in latin america and east asia 20 21 due to globalisation and the resulting spread of the language in recent decades english is becoming increasingly decentralised with daily use and statewide study of the language in schools growing in most regions of the world however in the global context the number of native speakers of english is much smaller than the number of non native speakers of english of reasonable competence in 2018 it was estimated that for every native speaker of english there are six non native speakers of reasonable competence 22 raising the questions of english as a lingua franca as the most widely spoken form of the language philippine english which is predominantly spoken as a second language has been primarily influenced by american english the rise of the call center industry in the philippines has encouraged some filipinos to polish or neutralize their accents to make them more closely resemble the accents of their client countries citation needed countries such as australia new zealand and canada have their own well established varieties of english which are the standard within those countries but are far more rarely taught overseas to second language learners 23 standard english in australia and new zealand is related to british english in its common pronunciation and vocabulary a similar relationship exists between canadian english and american english english was historically pluricentric when it was used across the independent kingdoms of england and scotland prior to the acts of union in 1707 english english and scottish english are now subsections of british english citation needed french edit this section does not cite any sources please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed september 2018 learn how and when to remove this message main article varieties of french in the modern era there are several major loci of the french language including standard french also known as parisian french canadian french including quebec french and acadian french belgian french american french for instance louisiana french haitian french and african french until the early 20th century the french language was highly variable in pronunciation and vocabulary within france with varying dialects and degrees of intelligibility known as the langues d oïl however government policy made it so that the dialect of paris would be the method of instruction in schools and other dialects like norman which has influence from scandinavian languages were neglected controversy still remains in france over the fact that the government recognizes them as languages of france but provides no monetary support for them nor has the constitutional council of france ratified the charter for regional or minority languages citation needed north american french is the result of french colonization of the new world between the 17th and 18th centuries in many cases it contains vocabulary and dialectal quirks not found in standard parisian french owing to history most of the original settlers of quebec acadia and later what would become louisiana and northern new england came from northern and northwest france and would have spoken dialects like norman poitevin and angevin with far fewer speaking the dialect of paris this plus isolation from developments in france most notably the drive for standardization by l académie française make north american dialects of the language quite distinct acadian french spoken in new brunswick canada has many words no longer used in modern france much of it having roots in the 17th century and a distinct intonation québécois the largest of the dialects has a distinct pronunciation that is not found in europe in any measure and a greater difference in vowel pronunciation and syntax tends to vary greatly citation needed cajun french has some distinctions not found in canada in that there is more vocabulary derived from both local native american and african dialects and a pronunciation of the letter r that has disappeared in france entirely it is rolled and with heavier contact with the english language than any of the above the pronunciation has shifted to harder sounding consonants in the 20th century cajun french equally has been an oral language for generations and it is only recently that its syntax and features been adapted to french orthography citation needed in africa french is often spoken as a second language alongside the indigenous ones but in a small number of urban areas in particular in central africa and in the ports located on the gulf of guinea it has become a first language such as in the region of abidjan côte d ivoire 24 the democratic republic of congo 25 in the urban areas of douala yaoundé in cameroon in libreville gabon and antananarivo 26 in the urban areas of francophone africa another type of french has emerged français populaire africain popular african french or fpa it is used in the entirety of sub saharan africa but especially in cities such as abidjan côte d ivoire cotonou benin dakar senegal lomé togo and ouagadougou burkina faso minor standards can also be found in belgium and switzerland with particular influence of germanic languages on grammar and vocabulary sometimes through the influence of local dialects in belgium for example various germanic influences in spoken french are evident in wallonia for example to blink in english and blinken in german and dutch blinquer in walloon and local french cligner in standard french ring rocade or périphérique in standard french is a common word in the three national languages for beltway or ring road citation needed also in belgium and switzerland there are noted differences in the number system when compared to standard parisian or canadian french notably in the use of septante octante huitante and nonante for the numbers 70 80 and 90 in other standards of french these numbers are usually denoted soixante dix sixty ten quatre vingts fourscore and quatre vingt dix fourscore and ten french varieties spoken in oceania are also influenced by local languages new caledonian french is influenced by kanak languages in its vocabulary and grammatical structure african french is another variety citation needed german edit main article standard german standard german is often considered an asymmetric pluricentric language 27 the standard used in germany is often considered dominant mostly because of the sheer number of its speakers compared to the austrian standard german and swiss standard german varieties although there is a uniform stage pronunciation based on a manual by theodor siebs that is used in theatres and nowadays to a lesser extent in radio and television news all across german speaking countries this is not true for the standards applied at public occasions in austria south tyrol and switzerland which differ in pronunciation vocabulary and sometimes even grammar in switzerland the letter ß has been removed from the alphabet with ss as its replacement the varieties of standard german used in those region...
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