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on of the region as the viceroyalty of peru the spanish conquest of the muisca took place from 1537 to 1540 meanwhile the calchaquí wars were a series of military conflicts between the diaguita confederation and the spanish empire in the 1560 1667 period after many initial spanish successes in the arauco war against the mapuche the battle of curalaba in 1598 and the following destruction of the seven cities marked a turning point in the war leading to the establishment of a clear frontier between the spanish domains and the land of the independent mapuche asia edit gunpowder empires edit main article gunpowder empires the gunpowder empires the gunpowder empires were the ottoman safavid and mughal empires as they flourished from the 16th century to the 18th century these three empires were among the strongest and most stable economies of the early modern period leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture while their political and legal institutions were consolidated with an increasing degree of centralisation the empires underwent a significant increase in per capita income and population and a sustained pace of technological innovation they stretched from central europe and north africa in the west to between today s modern bangladesh and myanmar in the east under sultan selim i 1512 1520 the ottomans defeated the safavids in the battle of chaldiran 1514 3 439 his successor suleiman the magnificent 1520 1566 the ottoman empire marked the peak of its power and prosperity as well as the highest development of its government social and economic systems 35 already controlling the balkans it was able to invade hungary and win in the battle of mohács 1526 3 439 however further advancement failed after the siege of vienna 1529 3 440 following naval victories in the battle of preveza 1538 and the battle of djerba 1560 the ottomans also emerged as the dominant maritime power in the mediterranean 3 441 a sailing voyage even reached the aceh sultanate in 1565 3 442 at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states some of these were later absorbed into the ottoman empire while others were granted various types of autonomy over the course of centuries note 1 however the ottomans began to face many challenges the failure to conquer the safavid empire forced it to keep forces in the east while the expansion of the russian empire put pressure on the black sea territories 3 442 meanwhile western powers began to overtake their maritime capabilities with the battle of lepanto 1571 being a turning point 3 442 in 1683 the battle of vienna halted an ottoman invasion again with the christian holy league driving the empire back into the balkans 3 442 despite the venetian reconquest of morea peloponnese in the 1680s and it was recovered in 1715 while the island of corfu under venetian rule remained the only greek island not conquered by the ottomans the ottoman empire still remained the largest power in the mediterranean and the middle east 3 443 the safavid dynasty ruled persia from 1501 to 1722 experiencing a brief restoration from 1729 to 1736 it ruled from the black sea to the hindu kush with more than 50 million inhabitants 3 443 originating from caucasian warriors called the qizilbash they conquered armenia in 1501 most of persia by 1504 parts of uzbekistan in 1511 and unsuccessfully fighting over caucasus and mesopotamia until 1555 3 444 however baghdad was recaptured in 1623 3 444 the expansion of russia in the north eventually started to pose a threat 3 446 the empire was finally defeated by and divided between the ottomans and the russians in 1722 23 3 447 the mughal empire was an empire in south asia 36 for some two centuries the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the indus basin in the west northern afghanistan in the northwest and kashmir in the north to the highlands of present day assam and bangladesh in the east and the uplands of the deccan plateau in south india 37 in 1505 central asian invaders had entered the indo gangetic plain and established the empire under akbar 1556 1605 3 447 the neglect of northern defences allowed the persians under nader shah to invade in 1739 with the capital delhi sacked 3 450 451 east asia edit under the ming dynasty 1368 1644 china s population and economy grew 3 451 while the portuguese empire was at first successfully kept out japanese pirates began to attack the coast forcing co operation with the portuguese who established a trading settlement at macau in 1554 3 452 northern mongol and jurchen people established a coalition to invade the country reaching beijing in 1550 3 452 in 1592 the japanese invaded korea while rebellions emerged in china 3 453 europe edit silesia s position in europe in red in 1700 charles ii of spain died naming phillip of anjou louis xiv s grandson his heir charles decision was not well met by the british who believed that louis would use the opportunity to ally france and spain and attempt to take over europe britain formed the grand alliance with holland austria and a majority of the german states and declared war against spain in 1702 the war of the spanish succession lasted 11 years and ended when the treaty of utrecht was signed in 1714 38 less than 50 years later in 1740 war broke out again sparked by the invasion of silesia part of austria by king frederick the great of prussia the british empire the dutch republic and the kingdom of hungary supported maria theresa over the next eight years these and other states participated in the war of the austrian succession until a treaty was signed allowing prussia to keep silesia 39 40 the seven years war began when theresa dissolved her alliance with britain and allied with france and russia in 1763 britain won the war claiming canada and land east of the mississippi prussia also kept silesia 41 oceania edit main article history of oceania van diemen s land in 1852 interest in the geography of the southern hemisphere began to increase in the 18th century 42 in 1642 dutch navigator abel tasman was commissioned to explore the southern hemisphere during his voyages tasman discovered the island of van diemen s land which was later named tasmania the australian coast and new zealand in 1644 43 captain james cook was commissioned in 1768 to observe a solar eclipse in tahiti and sailed into stingray harbor on australia s east coast in 1770 claiming the land for the british crown 44 settlements in australia began in 1788 when britain began to utilize the country for the deportation of convicts 45 with the first free settles arriving in 1793 46 likewise new zealand became a home for hunters seeking whales and seals in the 1790s with later non commercial settlements by the scottish in the 1820s and 1830s 47 modern era edit main article modern era revolutionary waves edit main article age of revolution the atlantic revolutions were a revolutionary wave in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries it took place in both the americas and europe following the age of enlightenment ideas critical of absolutist monarchies began to spread spreading liberalism the first of these was the corsican revolution 1755 1769 which led to the first modern constitution and lead to female suffrage inspired by the thought of jean jacques rousseau in the american revolution 1765 1783 american colonies of the british empire rose against taxation without representation and declared that all men are created equal other revolutions included the geneva revolution of 1782 revolt of dutch patriots 1785 liège revolution 1789 1795 brabant revolution 1790 haitian revolution 1791 1804 batavian revolution 1795 slave revolt in curaçao 1795 fédon s rebellion 1796 scottish rebellion 1797 irish rebellion 1798 helvetic revolution 1798 and altamuran revolution 1799 1811 german coast uprising 1811 and the norwegian war of independence 1814 there were smaller upheavals in switzerland russia and brazil the revolutionaries in each country knew of the others and to some degree were inspired by or emulated them 48 the french revolutionary wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the french revolution they pitted france against great britain the holy roman empire prussia russia and several other monarchies they are divided in two periods the war of the first coalition 1792 1797 and the war of the second coalition 1798 1802 initially confined to europe the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension after a decade of constant warfare and aggressive diplomacy france had conquered territories in the italian peninsula the low countries and the rhineland in europe and was retroceded louisiana in north america french success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of europe the french colonial empire was the second largest empire in the world behind the british empire the coup of 18 brumaire brought general napoleon bonaparte to power as first consul of france and in the view of most historians ended the french revolution the napoleonic wars 1803 1815 were a series of major conflicts pitting the french empire and its allies led by napoleon i against a fluctuating array of european powers formed into various coalitions it produced a brief period of french domination over most of continental europe the wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the french revolution and its resultant conflict the wars are often categorised into five conflicts each termed after the coalition that fought napoleon the third coalition 1805 the fourth 1806 07 the fifth 1809 the sixth 1813 14 and the seventh 1815 the peninsular war with france which resulted from the napoleonic occupation of spain caused spanish creoles in spanish america to question their allegiance to spain stoking independence movements that culminated in various spanish american wars of independence 1808 1833 which were primarily fought between opposing groups of colonists and only secondarily against spanish forces at the same time the portuguese monarchy relocated to brazil during portugal s french occupation after the royal court returned to lisbon the prince regent pedro remained in brazil and in 1822 successfully declared himself emperor of a newly independent brazilian empire revolutions during the 1820s included the carbonari in italy the trienio liberal in spain the liberal revolution of 1820 in the kingdom of portugal the greek war of independence and the decembrist revolt in the russian empire followed by these the revolutions of 1830 were an included the belgian revolution in the united kingdom of the netherlands the july revolution in france the november uprising in the congress poland and the ustertag in switzerland the revolutions of 1848 in turn were the most widespread revolutionary wave in european history they included the march revolution french revolution german revolutions the revolutions in the italian states greater poland uprising march unrest revolutions in the austrian empire praieira revolt revolution in luxembourg moldavian revolution wallachian revolution chartism and the young ireland rebellion great power competition edit inspired by the rebellions in the 1820s and 1830s against the outcome of the congress of vienna the italian unification process was precipitated by the revolutions of 1848 it reached completion in 1871 when the papal states were captured and rome was officially designated the capital of the kingdom of italy 49 50 after the franco prussian war of 1870 71 prussia under otto von bismarck brought together almost all the german states excluding the austrian empire luxembourg and liechtenstein into a new german empire bismarck s new empire became the most powerful state in continental europe until 1914 51 52 meanwhile britain had entered an era of splendid isolation avoiding entanglements that had led it into the crimean war in 1854 1856 it concentrated on internal industrial development and political reform and building up its great international holdings the british empire while maintaining by far the world s strongest navy to protect its island home and its many overseas possessions comparison of africa in the years 1880 and 1913 the berlin conference of 1884 which regulated european colonization and trade in africa is usually accepted as the beginning of the scramble for africa in the last quarter of the 19th century there were considerable political rivalries among the empires of the european continent leading to the african continent being partitioned without wars between european nations as late as the 1870s europeans controlled approximately 10 of the african continent with all their territories located near the coasts the most important holdings were angola and mozambique held by portugal the cape colony held by great britain and algeria held by france by 1914 only ethiopia and liberia remained independent of european control with the latter having strong connections to the united states 53 in the spanish american war of 1898 the united states intervened in the cuban war of independence leading it to emerge as the predominant power in the caribbean region 54 and resulting in u s acquisition of spain s pacific possessions it also led to united states involvement in the philippine revolution and later to the philippine american war the banana wars were a series of conflicts that consisted of military occupation police action and intervention by the united states in central america and the caribbean following the end of the spanish american war in 1898 after which the united states proceeded to conduct military interventions in cuba panama nicaragua mexico haiti and the dominican republic world wars edit world war i and aftermath edit main articles world war i and interwar period world war i saw the continent of europe split into two major opposing alliances the allied powers primarily composed of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland the united states france the russian empire italy japan portugal and the many aforementioned balkan states such as the kingdom of serbia and montenegro and the central powers primarily composed of the german empire the austro hungarian empire the ottoman empire and bulgaria though serbia was defeated in the serbian campaign of 1915 and romania joined the allied powers in 1916 only to be defeated in 1917 none of the great powers were knocked out of the war until 1918 the 1917 february revolution in russia replaced the russian empire with the provisional government but continuing discontent with the cost of the war led to the october revolution the creation of the soviet socialist republic and the signing of the treaty of brest litovsk by the new government in march 1918 ending russia s involvement in the war one by one the central powers quit first bulgaria september 29 then the ottoman empire october 31 and the austro hungarian empire november ...
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