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potential application 1 system software system software is a collection of programs written to service other programs some system software compiler editor processes complex but defined information structure other system software operating system components drivers process large undefined data in both the cases the system software is characterized by heavy interaction with computer hardware heavy usage by multiple users concurrent process scheduling resource sharing process management etc 2 real time software software that monitor analyzes controls real world events as they occur is called real time software real time software includes a data gathering component that collects and formats information from an external environment an analysis component that transforms information as required by the application a control component that responds to the external environment and a monitoring component that coordinates all other components so that real time response can be maintained 3 business software business information processing is the largest single software application area applications in this area payroll inventory restructure existing data in a way that facilitates business operations or management decision making 4 engineering and scientific software engineering and scientific software has been characterized by number crunching algorithms system simulation computer aided design and other interactive applications are some of the examples 5 embedded software embedded software resides in read only memory and is used to control products and systems for consumer and industrial markets embedded software can perform limited functions keypad control for a microwave oven or provide significant function and control capability digital functions in an automobile such as fuel control dashboard displays braking systems 6 personal computer software the personal computer software market has grown rapidly over the past decade word processing spreadsheets computer graphics multimedia database management personal and business financial applications are some of the applications 7 artificial intelligence software artificial intelligence software makes use of non numerical algorithm to solve complex problem that are not liable to computation or straightforward analysis an active area is expert systems also known as knowledge based systems other application areas include pattern recognition game playing and recently artificial neural network has evolved software engineering definitions the need for systematic approaches to development and maintenance of computer software products became apparent in 1960s during this decade third generation computing hardware was invented and the software techniques of multiprogramming and time sharing were developed these capabilities provided the technology for implementation of interactive multiuser on line and real time computing systems as the computing systems became larger and more complex it became apparent that the demand for computer software was growing faster than our ability to produce and maintain it a workshop was held in garmisch west germany in 1968 to consider the growing problems of software technology this workshop and the subsequent one held in rome italy in 1969 stimulated widespread interest in the technical and managerial processes used to develop and maintain computer software the term software engineering was first used in these workshops since 1968 the applications of digital computers have become increasingly diverse complex and critical to modern society as a result the field of software engineering has evolved into technological discipline of considerable importance according to boehm software engineering involves the practical application of scientific knowledge to the design and construction of computer programs and the associated documentation required to develop operate and maintain them the ieee standard glossary of software engineering terminology defines software engineering as the systematic approach to the development operation maintenance and retirement of software software engineering is the technological and managerial discipline concerned with systematic production and maintenance of software products that are developed and modified on time and within cost estimates the primary goals of software engineering are to improve the quality of software products and to increase the productivity and job satisfaction of software engineers the software process software process is the total set of software engineering activities necessary to develop and maintain software products it can be characterized as shown in the figure below a common process framework is established by defining a small number of framework activities that are applicable to all software projects regardless of their size and complexity a number of task sets each a collection of software engineering work tasks project milestones software work products and deliverables and quality assurance points enable the framework activities to be adapted to the characteristics of the software project and the requirements of the project team finally umbrella activities such as software quality assurance software configuration management and measurement overly the process model umbrella activities are independent of any framework activity and occur throughout the process software process models the development strategy encompassing all the activities required to define develop test deliver operate and maintain software product is often referred to as process model or software engineering paradigm different models emphasize different aspects of the life cycle and no single model is appropriate for all software products it is important to define a life cycle model for each software project because the model provides a basis for controlling the various activities required to develop and maintain a software product the selection of a process model is based on the nature of the project and application the tools to be used and the controls and deliverables that are required all software development can be characterized as a problem solving loop in which four distinct stages are encountered status quo problem definition technical development and solution integration status quo represents the current state of the process problem definition identifies the specific problem to be solved technical development solves the problem through the application of some technology and solution integration delivers the results to those who requested the solution in the first place regardless of the process model that is chosen for a software project all of the stages status quo problem definition technical development and solution integration exist simultaneously at some level of detail i the linear sequential model sometimes called the classic life cycle or waterfall model the linear sequential model suggests a systematic sequential approach to the software development that begins at the system level and progresses through analysis design coding testing and maintenance linear sequential model involves the following activities system information engineering because software is always part of a larger system work begins by establishing requirements for all the system elements and then allocating some subset of these requirements to software this system view is essential when software must interface with other elements such as hardware people and databases system engineering and analysis involves requirements gathering at the system level with a small amount of top level analysis and design information engineering involves requirements gathering at the strategic business level and at the business area level software requirement analysis the requirements gathering process is intensified and focused specifically on software to understand the nature of the program to be built the software engineer must understand the information domain for the software as well as required function behavior performance and interfacing requirements for both the system and the software are documented and reviewed with the customer design software design is a multi step process that focuses on four distinct attributes of a program data structure software architecture interface representations procedural detail the design process translates requirements into a representation of the software that can be assessed for quality before code generation begins like requirements the design is documented and becomes part of the software configuration code generation the design must be translated into a machine readable form the code generation step performs this task if design is performed in a detailed manner code generation can be accomplished mechanistically testing once code has been generated program testing begins the testing process focuses on the logical internals of the software assuring that all statements have been tested and on the functional externals that is conducting tests to uncover errors and ensure that defined input will produce actual results that agree with required results maintenance software will undergo change after it is delivered to the customer change will occur because errors have been encountered because the software must be adopted to accommodate changes in its external environment or because the customer requires functional or performance enhancements software maintenance reapplies each of the preceding phases to an existing program rather than a new one the linear sequential model is the oldest and the most widely used model for software engineering some of the problems that may arise when linear sequential model is applied are 1 real projects rarely follow the sequential flow that the model proposes although the linear model can accommodate iterations it does so indirectly as a result changes can cause confusion as the project team proceeds 2 it is often difficult for the customer to state all the requirements explicitly the linear sequential model requires this and has difficulty accommodating the natural uncertainty that exists at the beginning of many projects 3 the customer must have patience a working version of the program will not be available until late in the project time span a major blunder if undetected until the working program is reviewed can be disastrous each of these problems is real but still the classic life cycle model has a definite and important place in the software engineering work it provides a template into which methods for analysis design coding testing and maintenance can be placed the classic life cycle remains the most widely used process model for software engineering ii the prototyping model often a customer defines a set of general objectives for software but does not identify detailed input processing or output requirements in other cases the developer may be unsure of the efficiency of an algorithm the adaptability of an operating system or the form that human machine interaction should take in these and many other situations a prototyping model may offer the best approach the prototype model shown below begins with requirement gathering developer and customer meet and define the overall objectives for the software identify whatever requirements are known and outline the areas where further definition is required the output is quick design a quick design focuses on a representation of those aspects of the software that will be visible to the customer the quick design leads to the construction of a prototype the prototype is evaluated by the customer and is used to refine the requirements for the software to be developed iteration occurs as the prototype is tuned to satisfy the needs of the customer at the same time enabling the developer to better understand the needs of the customer the prototype model serves as a mechanism for identifying software requirements both the developer and the customer like this model customers get a feel of the actual system and developer gets some idea about the requirements of the customer yet prototype model do have disadvantages 1 the customer sees what appears to a working version of the software unaware of the things like in a hurry to get it working software quality and maintainability had not been considered when informed that the product must be rebuilt so that high level of quality can be maintained the customer demands that with a slight modification prototype model can be converted into a working model too often the software development management relents 2 the developer often makes implementation compromises in order to get a prototype working quickly an inappropriate operating system or programming language may be used simply because it is available and known an inefficient algorithm may be implemented simply to demonstrate capability after sometime the developer may become familiar with these choices and forget all the reasons why they were inappropriate the less than ideal choice has now become an integral part of the system although problems can occur prototyping can be an effective model for software engineering the key is to define the rules at the beginning that is the customer and the developer must both agree that the prototype is built to serve as a mechanism for defining requirements it is then discarded and the actual software is engineered with the aim towards the quality and maintainability iii the incremental model the incremental model combines elements of the linear sequential model with the iterative nature of the prototyping the incremental model applies the linear sequences in a staggered fashion as the time progresses as shown in the figure below each linear sequence produces a deliverable increment of the software in incremental model the increment is a core product in which the requirements are addressed the core product is used by the customer as a result of use and evaluation a plan is developed for the next increment the plan addresses the modification of the core product to meet the needs of the customer and delivery of additional features and functionality this process is repeated until the complete product is produced the incremental model like prototyping is iterative in nature but unlike prototyping the incremental model focuses on the delivery of an operational product with each increment the early versions of the incremental model provide a platform for the user to evaluate the requirements incremental development is useful when staffing is unavailable for the complete implementation by the deadline that has been established for the project early increments can be implemented with fewer people if the core product is well received then additional staff can be added to implement the next increment iv the spiral model the spiral model is an evolutionary software process model that couples the iterative nature of prototyping with the controlled and systematic aspects of linear sequential model in spiral model software is developed ...
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