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l checker would also be considered data the algorithms used by the spell checker to suggest corrections would be either machine code data or text in some interpretable programming language in an alternate usage binary files which are not human readable are sometimes called data as distinguished from human readable text 33 the total amount of digital data in 2007 was estimated to be 281 billion gigabytes 281 exabytes 34 35 data keys and values structures and persistence edit keys in data provide the context for values regardless of the structure of data there is always a key component present keys in data and data structures are essential for giving meaning to data values without a key that is directly or indirectly associated with a value or collection of values in a structure the values become meaningless and cease to be data that is to say there has to be a key component linked to a value component in order for it to be considered data 36 data can be represented in computers in multiple ways as per the following examples ram edit random access memory ram holds data that the cpu has direct access to a cpu may only manipulate data within its processor registers or memory this is as opposed to data storage where the cpu must direct the transfer of data between the storage device disk tape and memory ram is an array of linear contiguous locations that a processor may read or write by providing an address for the read or write operation the processor may operate on any location in memory at any time in any order in ram the smallest element of data is the binary bit the capabilities and limitations of accessing ram are processor specific in general main memory is arranged as an array of locations beginning at address 0 hexadecimal 0 each location can usually store 8 or 32 bits depending on the computer architecture keys edit data keys need not be a direct hardware address in memory indirect abstract and logical keys codes can be stored in association with values to form a data structure data structures have predetermined offsets or links or paths from the start of the structure in which data values are stored therefore the data key consists of the key to the structure plus the offset or links or paths into the structure when such a structure is repeated storing variations of the data values and the data keys within the same repeating structure the result can be considered to resemble a table in which each element of the repeating structure is considered to be a column and each repetition of the structure is considered as a row of the table in such an organization of data the data key is usually a value in one or a composite of the values in several of the columns organised recurring data structures edit the tabular view of repeating data structures is only one of many possibilities repeating data structures can be organised hierarchically such that nodes are linked to each other in a cascade of parent child relationships values and potentially more complex data structures are linked to the nodes thus the nodal hierarchy provides the key for addressing the data structures associated with the nodes this representation can be thought of as an inverted tree modern computer operating system file systems are a common example and xml is another sorted or ordered data edit data has some inherent features when it is sorted on a key all the values for subsets of the key appear together when passing sequentially through groups of the data with the same key or a subset of the key changes this is referred to in data processing circles as a break or a control break it particularly facilitates the aggregation of data values on subsets of a key peripheral storage edit until the advent of bulk non volatile memory like flash persistent data storage was traditionally achieved by writing the data to external block devices like magnetic tape and disk drives these devices typically seek to a location on the magnetic media and then read or write blocks of data of a predetermined size in this case the seek location on the media is the data key and the blocks are the data values early used raw disk data file systems or disc operating systems reserved contiguous blocks on the disc drive for data files in those systems the files could be filled up running out of data space before all the data had been written to them thus much unused data space was reserved unproductively to ensure adequate free space for each file later file systems introduced partitions they reserved blocks of disc data space for partitions and used the allocated blocks more economically by dynamically assigning blocks of a partition to a file as needed to achieve this the file system had to keep track of which blocks were used or unused by data files in a catalog or file allocation table though this made better use of the disc data space it resulted in fragmentation of files across the disc and a concomitant performance overhead due to additional seek time to read the data modern file systems reorganize fragmented files dynamically to optimize file access times further developments in file systems resulted in virtualization of disc drives i e where a logical drive can be defined as partitions from a number of physical drives indexed data edit retrieving a small subset of data from a much larger set may imply inefficiently searching through the data sequentially indexes are a way to copy out keys and location addresses from data structures in files tables and data sets then organize them using inverted tree structures to reduce the time taken to retrieve a subset of the original data in order to do this the key of the subset of data to be retrieved must be known before retrieval begins the most popular indexes are the b tree and the dynamic hash key indexing methods indexing is overhead for filing and retrieving data there are other ways of organizing indexes e g sorting the keys and using a binary search algorithm abstraction and indirection edit object oriented programming uses two basic concepts for understanding data and software the taxonomic rank structure of classes which is an example of a hierarchical data structure and at run time the creation of references to in memory data structures of objects that have been instantiated from a class library it is only after instantiation that an object of a specified class exists after an object s reference is cleared the object also ceases to exist the memory locations where the object s data was stored are garbage and are reclassified as unused memory available for reuse database data edit the advent of databases introduced a further layer of abstraction for persistent data storage databases use metadata and a structured query language protocol between client and server systems communicating over a computer network using a two phase commit logging system to ensure transactional completeness when saving data parallel distributed data processing edit modern scalable and high performance data persistence technologies such as apache hadoop rely on massively parallel distributed data processing across many commodity computers on a high bandwidth network in such systems the data is distributed across multiple computers and therefore any particular computer in the system must be represented in the key of the data either directly or indirectly this enables the differentiation between two identical sets of data each being processed on a different computer at the same time properties of digital information edit all digital information possesses common properties that distinguish it from analog data with respect to communications synchronization since digital information is conveyed by the sequence in which symbols are ordered all digital schemes have some method for determining the beginning of a sequence in written or spoken human languages synchronization is typically provided by pauses spaces capitalization and punctuation machine communications typically use special synchronization sequences language all digital communications require a formal language which in this context consists of all the information that the sender and receiver of the digital communication must both possess in advance for the communication to be successful languages are generally arbitrary and specify the meaning to be assigned to particular symbol sequences the allowed range of values methods to be used for synchronization etc errors disturbances noise in analog communications invariably introduce some generally small deviation or error between the intended and actual communication disturbances in digital communication only result in errors when the disturbance is so large as to result in a symbol being misinterpreted as another symbol or disturbing the sequence of symbols it is generally possible to have near error free digital communication further techniques such as check codes may be used to detect errors and correct them through redundancy or re transmission errors in digital communications can take the form of substitution errors in which a symbol is replaced by another symbol or insertion deletion errors in which an extra incorrect symbol is inserted into or deleted from a digital message uncorrected errors in digital communications have an unpredictable and generally large impact on the information content of the communication copying because of the inevitable presence of noise making many successive copies of an analog communication is infeasible because each generation increases the noise because digital communications are generally error free copies of copies can be made indefinitely granularity the digital representation of a continuously variable analog value typically involves a selection of the number of symbols to be assigned to that value the number of symbols determines the precision or resolution of the resulting datum the difference between the actual analog value and the digital representation is known as quantization error for example if the actual temperature is 23 234456544453 degrees but only two digits 23 are assigned to this parameter in a particular digital representation the quantizing error is 0 234456544453 this property of digital communication is known as granularity compressible according to miller uncompressed digital data is very large and in its raw form it would actually produce a larger signal therefore be more difficult to transfer than analog data however digital data can be compressed compression reduces the amount of bandwidth space needed to send information data can be compressed sent and then decompressed at the site of consumption this makes it possible to send much more information and results in for example digital television signals offering more room on the airwave spectrum for more television channels 5 historical digital systems edit even though digital signals are generally associated with the binary electronic digital systems used in modern electronics and computing digital systems are actually ancient and need not be binary or electronic dna genetic code is a naturally occurring form of digital data storage written text due to the limited character set and the use of discrete symbols the alphabet in most cases the abacus was created sometime between 1000 bc and 500 bc it later became a form of calculation frequency nowadays it can be used as a very advanced yet basic digital calculator that uses beads on rows to represent numbers beads only have meaning in discrete up and down states not in analog in between states a beacon is perhaps the simplest non electronic digital signal with just two states on and off in particular smoke signals are one of the oldest examples of a digital signal where an analog carrier smoke is modulated with a blanket to generate a digital signal puffs that conveys information morse code uses six digital states dot dash intra character gap between each dot or dash short gap between each letter medium gap between words and long gap between sentences to send messages via a variety of potential carriers such as electricity or light for example using an electrical telegraph or a flashing light the braille uses a six bit code rendered as dot patterns flag semaphore uses rods or flags held in particular positions to send messages to the receiver watching them some distance away international maritime signal flags have distinctive markings that represent letters of the alphabet to allow ships to send messages to each other more recently invented a modem modulates an analog carrier signal such as sound to encode binary digital information as a series of binary digital sound pulses a slightly earlier surprisingly reliable version of the same concept was to bundle a sequence of audio digital signal and no signal information i e sound and silence on magnetic cassette tape for use with early home computers see also edit analog to digital converter barker code big data binary number comparison of analog and digital recording computer data storage data data dictionary data modeling data remanence data stream data set database index digital architecture digital art digital control digital divide digital electronics digital infinity digital native digital physics digital recording digital revolution digital video digital to analog converter internet forum state computer science tuple references edit ceruzzi paul e 29 june 2012 computing a concise history mit press isbn 978 0 262 51767 6 heinrich lutz j heinzl armin roithmayr friedrich 29 august 2014 wirtschaftsinformatik lexikon in german walter de gruyter gmbh co kg isbn 978 3 486 81590 0 martin hilbert priscila lópez 10 february 2011 the world s technological capacity to store communicate and compute information science vol 332 no 6025 pp 60 65 doi 10 1126 science 1200970 archived pdf from the original on 31 may 2011 also supporting online material for the world s technological capacity to store communicate and compute information pdf science doi 10 1126 science 1200970 archived pdf from the original on 31 may 2011 free access to the article through here www martinhilbert net worldinfocapacity html video animation on the world s technological capacity to store communicate and compute information from 1986 to 2010 11 june 2011 archived from the original on 21 february 2013 retrieved 6 november 2013 via youtube 1 2 miller vincent 2011 understanding digital culture london sage publications sec convergence and the contemporary media experience isbn 978 1 84787 497 9 data loss prevention norton internet security nortoninternetsecurity cc 12 march 2011 retrieved 26 december 2012 data protection data in transit vs data at rest digital guardian retrieved 12 april 2023 the three states of information the university of edinburgh archived from the original on 14 april 2021 retrieved 21 february 2021 pickell devin structured vs unstructured data what s the difference learn g2 com retrieved 17 november 2020 webopedia data at rest 8 june 2007 1 2 what is...
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