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t shannon information theory cannot directly be generalized to the quantum case but rather that it is possible to construct a quantum information theory which is a generalization of shannon s theory within the formalism of a generalized quantum mechanics of open systems and a generalized concept of observables the so called semi observables 1980s edit 1980 edit paul benioff describes the first quantum mechanical model of a computer in this work benioff showed that a computer could operate under the laws of quantum mechanics by describing a schrödinger equation description of turing machines laying a foundation for further work in quantum computing the paper 24 was submitted in june 1979 and published in april 1980 yuri manin briefly motivates the idea of quantum computing 25 tommaso toffoli introduces the reversible toffoli gate 26 which together with initialized ancilla bits is functionally complete for reversible classical computation 1981 edit at the first conference on the physics of computation held at the massachusetts institute of technology mit in may 27 paul benioff and richard feynman give talks on quantum computing benioff s talk built on his earlier 1980 work showing that a computer can operate under the laws of quantum mechanics the talk was titled quantum mechanical hamiltonian models of discrete processes that erase their own histories application to turing machines 28 in feynman s talk he observed that it appeared to be impossible to efficiently simulate the evolution of a quantum nature system on a classical computer and he proposed a basic model for a quantum computer 29 feynman s conjecture on a quantum simulating computer published 1982 e understood as the reality of quantum mechanics expressed as an effective quantum system necessitates quantum computers 30 is conventionally accepted as a beginning of quantum computing 31 32 1982 edit paul benioff further develops his original model of a quantum mechanical turing machine 33 william wootters and wojciech h zurek 34 and independently dennis dieks 35 rediscover the no cloning theorem of james l park 1984 edit charles bennett and gilles brassard employ wiesner s conjugate coding for distribution of cryptographic keys 36 1985 edit david deutsch at the university of oxford england describes the first universal quantum computer just as a universal turing machine can simulate any other turing machine efficiently church turing thesis so the universal quantum computer is able to simulate any other quantum computer with at most a polynomial slowdown asher peres points out the need for quantum error correction schemes and discusses a repetition code for amplitude errors 37 john clarke michel devoret and john m martinis demonstrate quantized energy levels in a josephson junction 38 1988 edit yoshihisa yamamoto and k igeta propose the first physical realization of a quantum computer including feynman s cnot gate 39 their approach uses atoms and photons and is the progenitor of modern quantum computing and networking protocols using photons to transmit qubits and atoms to perform two qubit operations 1989 edit gerard j milburn proposes a quantum optical realization of a fredkin gate 40 bikas chakrabarti collaborators from saha institute of nuclear physics kolkata india propose that quantum fluctuations could help explore rugged energy landscapes by escaping from local minima of glassy systems having tall but thin barriers by tunneling instead of climbing over using thermal excitations suggesting the effectiveness of quantum annealing over classical simulated annealing 41 42 1990s edit 1991 edit artur ekert at the university of oxford proposes entanglement based secure communication 43 1992 edit david deutsch and richard jozsa propose a computational problem that can be solved efficiently with the deterministic deutsch jozsa algorithm on a quantum computer but for which no deterministic classical algorithm is possible this was perhaps the earliest result in the computational complexity of quantum computers proving that they were capable of performing some well defined computation more efficiently than any classical computer ethan bernstein and umesh vazirani propose the bernstein vazirani algorithm it is a restricted version of the deutsch jozsa algorithm where instead of distinguishing between two different classes of functions it tries to learn a string encoded in a function the bernstein vazirani algorithm was designed to prove an oracle separation between complexity classes bqp and bpp research groups at max planck institute of quantum optics garching 44 45 and shortly after at nist boulder 46 experimentally realize the first crystallized strings of laser cooled ions linear ion crystals constitute the qubit basis for most quantum computing and simulation experiments with trapped ions 1993 edit daniel r simon at université de montréal quebec canada invents an oracle problem simon s problem for which a quantum computer would be exponentially faster than a conventional computer this algorithm introduces the main ideas which were then developed in peter shor s factorization algorithm 1994 edit peter shor at at t s bell labs in new jersey publishes shor s algorithm it would allow a quantum computer to factor large integers quickly it solves both the factoring problem and the discrete log problem the algorithm can theoretically break many of the cryptosystems in use today its invention sparked tremendous interest in quantum computers the first united states government workshop on quantum computing is organized by nist in gaithersburg maryland in autumn isaac chuang and yoshihisa yamamoto propose a quantum optical realization of a quantum computer to implement deutsch s algorithm 47 their work introduced dual rail encoding for photonic qubits in december ignacio cirac at university of castilla la mancha at ciudad real and peter zoller at the university of innsbruck propose an experimental realization of the controlled not gate with cold trapped ions 48 1995 edit the first united states department of defense workshop on quantum computing and quantum cryptography is organized by united states army physicists charles m bowden jonathan dowling and henry o everitt it took place in february at the university of arizona in tucson peter shor proposes the first schemes for quantum error correction 49 christopher monroe and david j wineland at nist boulder colorado experimentally realize the first quantum logic gate the controlled not gate with trapped ions following the cirac zoller proposal 50 independently subhash kak and ronald chrisley propose the first quantum neural network 51 52 1996 edit lov grover at bell labs invents the quantum database search algorithm the quadratic speedup is not as dramatic as the speedup for factoring discrete logs or physics simulations however the algorithm can be applied to a much wider variety of problems any problem that can be solved by random brute force search may take advantage of this quadratic speedup in the number of search queries the united states government particularly in a joint partnership of the army research office now part of the army research laboratory and the national security agency issues the first public call for research proposals in quantum information processing andrew steane designs steane code for error correction 53 david divincenzo of ibm proposes a list of minimal requirements for creating a quantum computer 54 now called divincenzo s criteria seth lloyd proves feynman s conjecture on quantum simulation 55 1997 edit david g cory amr fahmy and timothy havel and at the same time neil gershenfeld and isaac chuang at mit publish the first papers realizing gates for quantum computers based on bulk nuclear spin resonance or thermal ensembles the technology is based on a nuclear magnetic resonance nmr machine which is similar to the medical magnetic resonance imaging machine alexei kitaev describes the principles of topological quantum computation as a method for dealing with the problem of decoherence 56 daniel loss and david divincenzo propose the loss divincenzo quantum computer using as qubits the intrinsic spin 1 2 degree of freedom of individual electrons confined to quantum dots 57 1998 edit the first experimental demonstration of a quantum algorithm is reported a working 2 qubit nmr quantum computer was used to solve deutsch s problem by jonathan a jones and michele mosca at oxford university and shortly after by isaac l chuang at ibm s almaden research center in california and mark kubinec and the university of california berkeley together with coworkers at stanford university in california and mit in massachusetts 58 the first working 3 qubit nmr computer is reported bruce kane proposes a silicon based nuclear spin quantum computer using nuclear spins of individual phosphorus atoms in silicon as the qubits and donor electrons to mediate the coupling between qubits 59 the first execution of grover s algorithm on an nmr computer is reported 60 hidetoshi nishimori colleagues from tokyo institute of technology show that a quantum annealing algorithm can perform better than classical simulated annealing under certain conditions 61 daniel gottesman and emanuel knill independently prove that a certain subclass of quantum computations can be efficiently emulated with classical resources gottesman knill theorem 62 1999 edit samuel l braunstein and collaborators show that none of the bulk nmr experiments performed to date contain any entanglement the quantum states being too strongly mixed this is seen as evidence that nmr computers would likely not yield a benefit over classical computers it remains an open question however whether entanglement is necessary for quantum computational speedup 63 gabriel aeppli thomas rosenbaum and colleagues demonstrate experimentally the basic concepts of quantum annealing in a condensed matter system yasunobu nakamura and jaw shen tsai demonstrate that a superconducting circuit can be used as a qubit 64 2000s edit 2000 edit arun k pati and samuel l braunstein prove the quantum no deleting theorem this is dual to the no cloning theorem which shows that one cannot delete a copy of an unknown qubit together with the stronger no cloning theorem the no deleting theorem has the implication that quantum information can neither be created nor be destroyed the first working 5 qubit nmr computer is demonstrated at the technical university of munich germany the first execution of order finding part of shor s algorithm at ibm s almaden research center and stanford university is demonstrated the first working 7 qubit nmr computer is demonstrated at the los alamos national laboratory in new mexico the textbook quantum computation and quantum information by michael nielsen and isaac chuang is published 2001 edit the first execution of shor s algorithm at ibm s almaden research center and stanford university is demonstrated the number 15 was factored using 10 18 identical molecules each containing seven active nuclear spins noah linden and sandu popescu prove that the presence of entanglement is a necessary condition for a large class of quantum protocols this coupled with braunstein s result see 1999 above called the validity of nmr quantum computation into question 65 emanuel knill raymond laflamme and gerard milburn show that optical quantum computing is possible with single photon sources linear optical elements and single photon detectors establishing the field of linear optical quantum computing robert raussendorf and hans jürgen briegel propose measurement based quantum computation 66 2002 edit the quantum information science and technology roadmapping project involving some of the main participants in the field lays out the quantum computation roadmap the institute for quantum computing is established at the university of waterloo in waterloo ontario by mike lazaridis raymond laflamme and michele mosca 67 a group led by gerhard birkl now at tu darmstadt demonstrates the first 2d array of optical tweezers with trapped atoms for quantum computation with atomic qubits 68 2003 edit implementation of the deutsch jozsa algorithm on an ion trap quantum computer at the university of innsbruck is reported 69 todd d pittman and collaborators at johns hopkins university applied physics laboratory and independently jeremy o brien and collaborators at the university of queensland demonstrate quantum controlled not gates using only linear optical elements 70 71 the first implementation of a cnot quantum gate according to the cirac zoller proposal is reported by a team at the university of innsbruck led by rainer blatt 72 the united states government darpa quantum network becomes fully operational on october 23 2003 the institute for quantum optics and quantum information iqoqi is established in innsbruck and vienna austria by the founding directors rainer blatt hans jürgen briegel rudolf grimm anton zeilinger and peter zoller 2004 edit the first working pure state nmr quantum computer based on parahydrogen is demonstrated at oxford university and university of york in england physicists at the university of innsbruck show deterministic quantum state teleportation between a pair of trapped calcium ions 73 the first five photon entanglement is demonstrated by pan jianwei s team at the university of science and technology of china the minimal number of qubits required for universal quantum error correction 74 2005 edit university of illinois urbana champaign scientists demonstrate quantum entanglement of multiple characteristics potentially allowing multiple qubits per particle two teams of physicists measure the capacitance of a josephson junction for the first time the methods could be used to measure the state of quantum bits in a quantum computer without disturbing the state 75 in december w states of quantum registers with up to 8 qubits implemented using trapped ions are demonstrated at the institute for quantum optics and quantum information and the university of innsbruck in austria 76 harvard university and georgia institute of technology us researchers succeed in transferring quantum information between quantum memories from atoms to photons and back again citation needed 2006 edit the materials science department of oxford university england cage a qubit in a buckyball a molecule of buckminsterfullerene and demonstrated quantum bang bang error correction 77 researchers from the university of illinois urbana champaign use the zeno effect repeatedly measuring the properties of a photon to gradually change it without actually allowing the photon to reach the program to search a database using counterfactual quantum computation 78 vlatko vedral of the university of leeds england and colleagues at the universities of porto and vienna find that the photons in ordinary laser light can be quantum mechanically entangled with the vibrations of a macroscopic mirror 79 samuel l braunstein at the univ...
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