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nd then they elected members of the council voter and candidate eligibility probably included property owners councilors guild members and perhaps at times artisans the doge of venice was determined through a complex process of nomination voting and sortition lot was used in the venetian system only in order to select members of the committees that served to nominate candidates for the great council a combination of election and lot was used in this multi stage process lot was not used alone to select magistrates unlike in florence and athens the use of lot to select nominators made it more difficult for political sects to exert power and discouraged campaigning 13 64 by reducing intrigue and power moves within the great council lot maintained cohesiveness among the venetian nobility contributing to the stability of this republic top magistracies generally still remained in the control of elite families 19 florence 14th and 15th century edit scrutiny was used in florence for over a century starting in 1328 18 nominations and voting together created a pool of candidates from different sectors of the city the names of these men were deposited into a sack and a lottery draw determined who would get to be a magistrate the scrutiny was gradually opened up to minor guilds reaching the greatest level of renaissance citizen participation in 1378 1382 in florence lot was used to select magistrates and members of the signoria during republican periods florence utilized a combination of lot and scrutiny by the people set forth by the ordinances of 1328 13 55 in 1494 florence founded a great council in the model of venice the nominatori were thereafter chosen by lot from among the members of the great council indicating an increase in aristocratic power 20 the enlightenment edit during the age of enlightenment many of the political ideals originally championed by the democratic city states of ancient greece were revisited the use of sortition as a means of selecting the members of government while receiving praise from notable enlightenment thinkers received almost no discussion during the formation of the american and french republics montesquieu s book the spirit of laws provides one of the most cited discussions of the concept in enlightenment political writing in which he argues sortition is natural to democracy just as elections are to aristocracy 21 he echoes the philosophy of much earlier thinkers such as aristotle who found elections as aristocratic 13 40 montesquieu caveats his support by saying that there should also be some mechanisms to ensure the pool of selection is competent and not corrupt 22 rousseau also found that a mixed model of sortition and election provided a healthier path for democracy than one or the other 23 harrington also found the venetian model of sortition compelling recommending it for his ideal republic of oceana 24 edmund burke in contrast worried that those randomly selected to serve would be less effective and productive than self selected politicians 25 note 8 bernard manin a french political theorist was astonished to find so little consideration of sortition in the early years of representative government he wonders if perhaps the choosing of rulers by lot may have been viewed as impractical on such a large scale as the modern state or if elections were thought to give greater political consent than sortition 13 page needed however david van reybrouck disagrees with manin s theories on the lack of consideration of sortition he suggests that the relatively limited knowledge about athenian democracy played a major role with the first thorough examination coming only in 1891 with election by lot at athens he also argues that wealthy enlightenment figures preferred to retain more power by holding elections with most not even offering excuses on the basis of practicality but plainly saying they preferred to retain significant elite power 26 citing commentators of 18th century france and the united states suggesting that they simply dislodged a hereditary aristocracy to replace it with an elected aristocracy 27 switzerland edit because financial gain could be achieved through the position of mayor some parts of switzerland used random selection during the years between 1640 and 1837 to prevent corruption 28 methods edit uscar court select juries by sortition before the random selection can be done the pool of candidates must be defined systems vary as to whether they allot from eligible volunteers from those screened by education experience or a passing grade on a test or screened by election by those selected by a previous round of random selection or from the membership or population at large a multi stage process in which random selection is alternated with other screening methods can be used as in the venetian system david chaum proposed selecting a random sample of eligible voters to study and vote on a public policy 29 30 while deliberative opinion polling invites a random sample to deliberate together before voting on a policy 29 analysis edit outcomes edit see also citizens assembly common interest andranik tangian critiques electoral politics as over representing politically active people and groups in a society 31 17 cognitive diversity or wisdom of the crowd utilizes a variety of perspectives and cognitive skills to find better solutions 32 according to numerous scholars such as page and landemore 33 this diversity is more important to creating successful ideas than the average ability level of a group page argues that random selection of persons of average intelligence perform better than a collection of the best individual problem solvers 34 this diversity trumps ability theorem 35 is central to the arguments for sortition 33 efficiency edit see also citizens assembly efficiency some argue that randomly allocating decision making is more efficient than representative democracy through elections 36 37 john burnheim critiques representative democracy as requiring citizens to vote for a large package of policies and preferences bundled together in one representative or party much of which a voter might not want he argues that this does not translate voter preferences as well as sortition where a group of people have the time and the ability to focus on a single issue 38 by allowing decision makers to focus on positive sum endeavors rather than zero sum elections it could help to lessen political polarization 37 39 and the influence of money and interest groups in politics 27 some studies show an overrepresentation of psychopathic and narcissistic traits in elected officials which can be solved through sortition by not selecting for people who seek power 40 41 participation edit see also citizens assembly participation burnheim also notes the importance of legitimacy for the effectiveness of the practice 42 legitimacy does depend on the success in achieving representativeness which if not met could limit the use cases of sortition to serving as consultative or political agenda setting bodies 43 oliver dowlen points to the egalitarian nature of all citizens having an equal chance of entering office irrespective of any bias in society that appear in representative bodies that can make them more representative 44 45 to bolster legitimacy other sortition bodies have been used and proposed to set the rules to improve accountability without the need for elections 46 the introduction of a variable percentage of randomly selected independent legislators in a parliament can increase the global efficiency of a legislature in terms of both number of laws passed and average social welfare obtained 47 this work is consistent with a 2010 paper on how the adoption of random strategies can improve the efficiency of hierarchical organizations 48 49 as participants grow in competence by contributing to deliberation they also become more engaged and interested in civic affairs 50 most societies have some type of citizenship education but sortition based committees allow ordinary people to develop their own democratic capacities through direct participation 51 survey experiments have produced mixed results finding that the perceived legitimacy of sortition depends on factors like individual characteristics and the policy issue in question 52 53 modern application edit sortition is most commonly used to form deliberative mini publics like citizens assemblies or the smaller citizen juries 54 the oecd has counted almost 600 examples of citizens assemblies with members selected by lottery for public decision making 2 drawing straws within a small group one of four matches is broken to be shorter than the others and the four are presented to the group to draw from the chooser of the short match being selected sortition is commonly used in selecting juries in anglo saxon 55 legal systems and in small groups e g picking a school class monitor by drawing straws in public decision making individuals are often determined by allotment if other forms of selection such as election fail to achieve a result examples include certain hung elections and certain votes in the uk parliament some contemporary thinkers like david van reybrouck have advocated a greater use of selection by lot in today s political systems sortition is also used in military conscription as one method of awarding us green cards and in placing students into some schools university classes and university residences 56 57 within organizations edit sortition also has potential for helping large associations to govern themselves democratically without the use of elections co ops employee owned businesses housing associations internet platforms student governments and other large membership organizations whose members generally do not know many other members yet seek to run their organization democratically often find elections problematic 58 59 examples include the samaritan ministries health plan using a panel of 13 randomly selected members to resolve select disputes 60 and the new zealand health research council awarding funding at random to applicants considered equally qualified 61 public policy edit this section is an excerpt from citizens assembly edit a session of a german citizens assembly in 2019 the participants sit around tables for deliberation in small groups citizens assembly is a group of people selected by lottery from the general population to deliberate on important public questions so as to exert an influence 62 63 64 65 other names and variations of deliberative mini publics include citizens jury citizens panel people s panel people s jury policy jury consensus conference and citizens convention 66 67 68 69 a citizens assembly uses elements of a jury to create public policy 70 its members form a representative cross section of the public and are provided with time resources and a broad range of viewpoints to learn deeply about an issue through skilled facilitation the assembly members weigh trade offs and work to find common ground on a shared set of recommendations citizens assemblies can be more representative and deliberative than public engagement polls legislatures or ballot initiatives 71 72 they seek quality of participation over quantity they also have added advantages in issues where politicians have a conflict of interest such as initiatives that will not show benefits before the next election or decisions that impact the types of income politicians can receive they also are particularly well suited to complex issues with trade offs and values driven dilemmas 73 with athenian democracy as the most famous government to use sortition theorists and politicians have used citizens assemblies and other forms of deliberative democracy in a variety of modern contexts 74 75 as of 2023 the international organization oecd has found their use increasing since 2010 76 77 political proposals for sortition edit supplement legislatures edit political scientist robert a dahl suggests that an advanced democratic state could form groups which he calls minipopuli each group would consist of perhaps a thousand citizens randomly selected and would either set an agenda of issues or deal with a particular major issue it would hold hearings commission research and engage in debate and discussion dahl suggests having the minipopuli as supplementing rather than replacing legislative bodies 78 claudia chwalisz has also advocated for using citizens assemblies selected by sortition to inform policymaking on an ongoing basis 79 80 81 82 deliberative opinion poll edit this section is an excerpt from deliberative opinion poll edit a deliberative opinion poll sometimes called a deliberative poll is a form of opinion poll taken before and after significant deliberation political scientist james s fishkin of stanford university first described the concept in 1988 the typical deliberative opinion poll takes a random representative sample of citizens and engages them in deliberation on current issues or proposed policy changes through small group discussions and conversations with competing experts to create more informed and reflective public opinion 83 deliberative polls have been run around the world including recent experiments to conduct discussions virtually in the united states hong kong chile canada and japan 84 replace legislatures edit john burnheim envisioned a political system in which many small citizens juries would deliberate and make decisions about public policies 85 his proposal included the dissolution of the state and of bureaucracies the term demarchy was coined by burnheim and is now sometimes used to refer to any political system in which sortition plays a central role 86 87 while burnheim preferred using only volunteers 88 christopher frey uses the german term lottokratie and recommends testing lottocracy in town councils lottocracy according to frey will improve the direct involvement of each citizen and minimize the systematical errors caused by political parties in europe 89 influenced by burnheim marxist economists paul cockshott and allin cottrell propose that to avoid formation of a new social elite in a post capitalist society citizens committees chosen by lot or partially chosen by lot should make major decisions 90 michael donovan proposes that the percentage of voters who do not turnout have their representatives chosen by sortition for example with 60 voter turnout a number of legislators are randomly chosen to make up 40 of the overall parliament 91 a number of proposals for an entire legislative body to be chosen by sortition have been made for the united states 92 canada 93 94 the united kingdom 95 96 denmark 97 and france 98 99 étienne chouard advocates strongly that those seeking power elected officials should not write the rules making sortition the best choice for creating constitutions and other rules around the allocation of power within a democracy 100 he and others propose replacing elections with bodies that...
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