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d and street lighting made for safer travel at night the number of potential patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously plays could run longer and still draw in the audiences leading to better profits and improved production values the first play to achieve 500 consecutive performances was the london comedy our boys opening in 1875 its record of 1 362 performances was bested in 1892 by charley s aunt 173 several of gilbert and sullivan s comic operas broke the 500 performance barrier beginning with h m s pinafore in 1878 and alfred cellier and b c stephenson s 1886 hit dorothy ran for 931 performances after w s gilbert oscar wilde became the leading poet and dramatist of the late victorian period wilde s plays in particular stand apart from the many now forgotten plays of victorian times and have a much closer relationship to those of the edwardian dramatists such as irish playwright george bernard shaw whose career began in the last decade of the 19th century wilde s 1895 comic masterpiece the importance of being earnest holds an ironic mirror to the aristocracy and displays a mastery of wit and paradoxical wisdom 20th century edit main articles twentieth century english literature american literature scottish literature irish literature and welsh literature in english modernism beginnings c 1901 1923 edit main articles literary modernism modernist poetry and modernist poetry in english joseph conrad 1919 or after english literary modernism developed in the early twentieth century out of a general sense of disillusionment with victorian era attitudes of certainty conservatism and belief in the idea of objective truth 174 the movement was influenced by the ideas of charles darwin ernst mach henri bergson friedrich nietzsche james g frazer karl marx das kapital 1867 and the psychoanalytic theories of sigmund freud among others 175 the continental art movements of impressionism and later cubism were also important 176 important literary precursors of modernism were fyodor dostoevsky walt whitman charles baudelaire arthur rimbaud and august strindberg 177 a major british lyric poet of the first decades of the twentieth century was thomas hardy though not a modernist hardy was an important transitional figure between the victorian era and the twentieth century a major novelist of the late nineteenth century hardy lived well into the third decade of the twentieth century though he only published poetry in this period another significant transitional figure between victorians and modernists the late nineteenth century novelist henry james continued to publish major novels into the twentieth century including the golden bowl 1904 polish born modernist novelist joseph conrad published his first important works heart of darkness in 1899 and lord jim in 1900 however the victorian gerard manley hopkins s highly original poetry was not published until 1918 long after his death while the career of another major modernist poet irishman w b yeats began late in the victorian era yeats was one of the foremost figures of twentieth century english literature but while modernism was to become an important literary movement in the early decades of the new century there were also many fine writers who like thomas hardy were not modernists during the early decades of the twentieth century the georgian poets like rupert brooke and walter de la mare maintained a conservative approach to poetry by combining romanticism sentimentality and hedonism another georgian poet edward thomas 178 is one of the first world war poets along with wilfred owen rupert brooke isaac rosenberg and siegfried sassoon irish playwrights george bernard shaw j m synge and seán o casey were influential in british drama shaw s career began in the last decade of the nineteenth century while synge s plays belong to the first decade of the twentieth century synge s most famous play the playboy of the western world caused outrage and riots when it was first performed in dublin in 1907 179 george bernard shaw turned the edwardian theatre into an arena for debate about important political and social issues 180 novelists who are not considered modernists include h g wells john galsworthy nobel prize in literature 1932 whose works include the forsyte saga 1906 1921 and e m forster though forster s work is frequently regarded as containing both modernist and victorian elements 181 forster s most famous work a passage to india 1924 reflected challenges to imperialism while his earlier novels examined the restrictions and hypocrisy of edwardian society in england carrying over from the nineteenth century rudyard kipling remained arguably the most popular british writer of the early years of the twentieth century in addition to w b yeats other important early modernist poets were the american born poet t s eliot eliot became a british citizen in 1927 but was born and educated in america his most famous works are prufrock 1915 the waste land 1922 and four quartets 1935 1942 amongst the novelists after joseph conrad other important early modernists include dorothy richardson whose novel pointed roof 1915 is one of the earliest examples of the stream of consciousness technique and d h lawrence who published the rainbow in 1915 though it was immediately seized by the police and women in love in 1920 182 then in 1922 irishman james joyce s important modernist novel ulysses appeared ulysses has been called a demonstration and summation of the entire movement 183 james joyce 1918 modernism continues 1923 1939 edit virginia woolf 1927 important british writers between the world wars include the scottish poet hugh macdiarmid who began publishing in the 1920s and novelist virginia woolf who was an influential feminist and a major stylistic innovator associated with the stream of consciousness technique in novels like mrs dalloway 1925 and to the lighthouse 1927 t s eliot had begun this attempt to revive poetic drama with sweeney agonistes in 1932 and this was followed by others including three further plays after the war in parenthesis a modernist epic poem based on author david jones s experience of world war i was published in 1937 an important development beginning in the 1930s and 1940s was a tradition of working class novels actually written by working class background writers among these were coal miner jack jones james hanley whose father was a stoker and who also went to sea as a young man and coal miners lewis jones from south wales and harold heslop from county durham 184 aldous huxley published his famous dystopia brave new world in 1932 the same year as john cowper powys s a glastonbury romance 185 samuel beckett published his first major work the novel murphy in 1938 this same year graham greene s first major novel brighton rock was published then in 1939 james joyce s published finnegans wake in which he creates a special language to express the consciousness of a dreaming character 186 it was also in 1939 that yeats died british poet w h auden was another significant modernist in the 1930s late modernism and post modernism 1940 2000 edit main article late modernism though some have seen modernism ending by around 1939 187 with regard to english literature when if modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from victorianism to modernism occurred 188 in fact a number of modernists were still living and publishing in the 1950s and 1960 including t s eliot dorothy richardson and ezra pound furthermore basil bunting born in 1900 189 published little until briggflatts in 1965 and samuel beckett born in ireland in 1906 continued to produce significant works until the 1980s though some view him as a post modernist 190 among british writers in the 1940s and 1950s were poet dylan thomas and novelist graham greene whose works span the 1930s to the 1980s while evelyn waugh w h auden continued publishing into the 1960s anthony powell began his 12 volume cycle a dance to the music of time in 1951 and continued writing and publishing it until the final volume appeared in 1975 postmodern literature is both a continuation of the experimentation championed by writers of the modernist period relying heavily for example on fragmentation paradox questionable narrators etc and a reaction against enlightenment ideas implicit in modernist literature postmodern literature like postmodernism as a whole is difficult to define and there is little agreement on the exact characteristics scope and importance of postmodern literature among postmodern writers are the americans henry miller william s burroughs joseph heller kurt vonnegut william gaddis hunter s thompson truman capote thomas pynchon and david foster wallace novel edit george orwell left and aldous huxley right in 1947 malcolm lowry published under the volcano while george orwell s satire of totalitarianism nineteen eighty four was published in 1949 other novelists writing in the 1950s and later were anthony powell whose twelve volume cycle of novels a dance to the music of time is a comic examination of movements and manners power and passivity in english political cultural and military life in the mid 20th century nobel prize laureate william golding s allegorical novel lord of the flies 1954 explores how culture created by man fails using as an example a group of british schoolboys marooned on a deserted island graham greene s novels the heart of the matter 1948 and the end of the affair 1951 used catholicism to explore moral dilemmas in human relationships continuing themes found in his earlier novels philosopher iris murdoch was a prolific writer of novels throughout the second half of the 20th century that deal especially with sexual relationships morality and the power of the unconscious scottish writer muriel spark pushed the boundaries of realism in her novels the prime of miss jean brodie 1961 at times takes the reader briefly into the distant future to see the various fates that befall its characters anthony burgess is especially remembered for his dystopian novel a clockwork orange 1962 set in the not too distant future during the 1960s and 1970s paul scott wrote his monumental series on the last decade of british rule in india the raj quartet 1966 1975 scotland has in the late 20th century produced several important novelists including the writer of how late it was how late james kelman who like samuel beckett can create humour out of the most grim situations and alasdair gray whose lanark a life in four books 1981 is a dystopian fantasy set in a surreal version of glasgow called unthank 191 two significant irish novelists are john banville and colm tóibín martin amis pat barker ian mcewan and julian barnes are other prominent late twentieth century british novelists drama edit an important cultural movement in the british theatre which developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s was kitchen sink realism or kitchen sink drama a term coined to describe art novels film and television plays the term angry young men was often applied to members of this artistic movement it used a style of social realism which depicts the domestic lives of the working class to explore social issues and political issues the drawing room plays of the post war period typical of dramatists like terence rattigan and noël coward were challenged in the 1950s by these angry young men in plays like john osborne s look back in anger 1956 again in the 1950s the absurdist play waiting for godot 1955 by irish writer samuel beckett profoundly affected british drama the theatre of the absurd influenced harold pinter the birthday party 1958 whose works are often characterised by menace or claustrophobia beckett also influenced tom stoppard rosencrantz and guildenstern are dead 1966 stoppard s works are however also notable for their high spirited wit and the great range of intellectual issues which he tackles in different plays an important new element in the world of british drama from the beginnings of radio in the 1920s was the commissioning of plays or the adaption of existing plays by bbc radio this was especially important in the 1950s and 1960s and from the 1960s for television many major british playwrights in fact either effectively began their careers with the bbc or had works adapted for radio including caryl churchill and tom stoppard whose first professional production was in the fifteen minute just before midnight programme on bbc radio which showcased new dramatists 192 john mortimer made his radio debut as a dramatist in 1955 with his adaptation of his own novel like men betrayed for the bbc light programme other notable radio dramatists included brendan behan and novelist angela carter among the most famous works created for radio are dylan thomas s under milk wood 1954 samuel beckett s all that fall 1957 harold pinter s a slight ache 1959 and robert bolt s a man for all seasons 1954 193 poetry edit major poets like t s eliot w h auden and dylan thomas were still publishing in this period though w h auden s career began in the 1930s and 1940s he published several volumes in the 1950s and 1960s his stature in modern literature has been contested but probably the most common critical view from the 1930s onward ranked him as one of the three major twentieth century british poets and heir to yeats and eliot 194 new poets starting their careers in the 1950s and 1960s include philip larkin the whitsun weddings 1964 ted hughes the hawk in the rain 1957 sylvia plath the colossus 1960 and seamus heaney death of a naturalist 1966 northern ireland has also produced a number of other significant poets including derek mahon and paul muldoon in the 1960s and 1970s martian poetry aimed to break the grip of the familiar by describing ordinary things in unfamiliar ways as though for example through the eyes of a martian poets most closely associated with it are craig raine and christopher reid another literary movement in this period was the british poetry revival was a wide reaching collection of groupings and subgroupings that embraces performance sound and concrete poetry 195 the mersey beat poets were adrian henri brian patten and roger mcgough their work was a self conscious attempt at creating an english equivalent to the american beats other noteworthy later twentieth century poets are welshman r s thomas geoffrey hill charles tomlinson and carol ann duffy geoffrey hill is considered one of the most distinguished english poets of his generation 196 charles tomlinson is another important english poet of an older generation though since his first publication in 1951 has built a career that has seen more notice in the international scene than in his native england 197 literature from the commonwealth of nations edit see also postcolonial australian canadian caribbean indian new zealand pakistani african south african and migrant literature doris lessing cologne 2006 from 1950 on ...
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