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h as remote control or remote guidance they may also be autonomous in which they have a pre programmed list of operations that will be executed unless otherwise instructed a robotic spacecraft for scientific measurements is often called a space probe or space observatory many space missions are more suited to telerobotic rather than crewed operation due to lower cost and risk factors in addition some planetary destinations such as venus or the vicinity of jupiter are too hostile for human survival given current technology outer planets such as saturn uranus and neptune are too distant to reach with current crewed spaceflight technology so telerobotic probes are the only way to explore them telerobotics also allows exploration of regions that are vulnerable to contamination by earth micro organisms since spacecraft can be sterilized humans can not be sterilized in the same way as a spaceship as they coexist with numerous micro organisms and these micro organisms are also hard to contain within a spaceship or spacesuit the first uncrewed space mission was sputnik launched october 4 1957 to orbit the earth nearly all satellites landers and rovers are robotic spacecraft not every uncrewed spacecraft is a robotic spacecraft for example a reflector ball is a non robotic uncrewed spacecraft space missions where other animals but no humans are on board are called uncrewed missions many habitable spacecraft also have varying levels of robotic features for example the space stations salyut 7 and mir and the international space station module zarya were capable of remote guided station keeping and docking maneuvers with both resupply craft and new modules uncrewed resupply spacecraft are increasingly used for crewed space stations history edit a replica of sputnik 1 at the u s national air and space museum a replica of explorer 1 the first robotic spacecraft was launched by the soviet union ussr on 22 july 1951 a suborbital flight carrying two dogs dezik and tsygan 1 four other such flights were made through the fall of 1951 the first artificial satellite sputnik 1 was put into a 215 by 939 kilometer 116 by 507 nmi earth orbit by the ussr on 4 october 1957 on 3 november 1957 the ussr orbited sputnik 2 weighing 113 kilograms 249 lb sputnik 2 carried the first animal into orbit the dog laika 2 since the satellite was not designed to detach from its launch vehicle s upper stage the total mass in orbit was 508 3 kilograms 1 121 lb 3 in a close race with the soviets the united states launched its first artificial satellite explorer 1 into a 357 by 2 543 kilometre 193 by 1 373 nmi orbit on 31 january 1958 explorer i was an 205 centimetre 80 75 in long by 15 2 centimetre 6 00 in diameter cylinder weighing 14 0 kilograms 30 8 lb compared to sputnik 1 a 58 centimeter 23 in sphere which weighed 83 6 kilograms 184 lb explorer 1 carried sensors which confirmed the existence of the van allen belts a major scientific discovery at the time while sputnik 1 carried no scientific sensors on 17 march 1958 the us orbited its second satellite vanguard 1 which was about the size of a grapefruit and which remains in a 670 by 3 850 kilometre 360 by 2 080 nmi orbit as of 2016 update the first attempted lunar probe was the luna e 1 no 1 launched on 23 september 1958 the goal of a lunar probe repeatedly failed until 4 january 1959 when luna 1 orbited around the moon and then the sun the success of these early missions began a race between the us and the ussr to outdo each other with increasingly ambitious probes mariner 2 was the first probe to study another planet revealing venus extremely hot temperature to scientists in 1962 while the soviet venera 4 was the first atmospheric probe to study venus mariner 4 s 1965 mars flyby snapped the first images of its cratered surface which the soviets responded to a few months later with images from on its surface from luna 9 in 1967 america s surveyor 3 gathered information about the moon s surface that would prove crucial to the apollo 11 mission that landed humans on the moon two years later 4 the first interstellar probe was voyager 1 launched 5 september 1977 it entered interstellar space on 25 august 2012 5 followed by its twin voyager 2 on 5 november 2018 6 nine other countries have successfully launched satellites using their own launch vehicles france 1965 7 japan 8 and china 1970 9 the united kingdom 1971 10 india 1980 11 israel 1988 12 iran 2009 13 north korea 2012 14 and south korea 2022 15 design edit in spacecraft design the united states air force considers a vehicle to consist of the mission payload and the bus or platform the bus provides physical structure thermal control electrical power attitude control and telemetry tracking and commanding 16 jpl divides the flight system of a spacecraft into subsystems 17 these include structure edit the physical backbone structure which provides overall mechanical integrity of the spacecraft ensures spacecraft components are supported and can withstand launch loads data handling edit this is sometimes referred to as the command and data subsystem it is often responsible for command sequence storage maintaining the spacecraft clock collecting and reporting spacecraft telemetry data e g spacecraft health collecting and reporting mission data e g photographic images attitude determination and control edit see also attitude control system this system is mainly responsible for the correct spacecraft s orientation in space attitude despite external disturbance gravity gradient effects magnetic field torques solar radiation and aerodynamic drag in addition it may be required to reposition movable parts such as antennas and solar arrays 18 entry descent and landing edit integrated sensing incorporates an image transformation algorithm to interpret the immediate imagery land data perform a real time detection and avoidance of terrain hazards that may impede safe landing and increase the accuracy of landing at a desired site of interest using landmark localization techniques integrated sensing completes these tasks by relying on pre recorded information and cameras to understand its location and determine its position and whether it is correct or needs to make any corrections localization the cameras are also used to detect any possible hazards whether it is increased fuel consumption or it is a physical hazard such as a poor landing spot in a crater or cliff side that would make landing very not ideal hazard assessment landing on hazardous terrain edit in planetary exploration missions involving robotic spacecraft there are three key parts in the processes of landing on the surface of the planet to ensure a safe and successful landing 19 this process includes an entry into the planetary gravity field and atmosphere a descent through that atmosphere towards an intended targeted region of scientific value and a safe landing that guarantees the integrity of the instrumentation on the craft is preserved while the robotic spacecraft is going through those parts it must also be capable of estimating its position compared to the surface in order to ensure reliable control of itself and its ability to maneuver well the robotic spacecraft must also efficiently perform hazard assessment and trajectory adjustments in real time to avoid hazards to achieve this the robotic spacecraft requires accurate knowledge of where the spacecraft is located relative to the surface localization what may pose as hazards from the terrain hazard assessment and where the spacecraft should presently be headed hazard avoidance without the capability for operations for localization hazard assessment and avoidance the robotic spacecraft becomes unsafe and can easily enter dangerous situations such as surface collisions undesirable fuel consumption levels and or unsafe maneuvers telecommunications edit components in the telecommunications subsystem include radio antennas transmitters and receivers these may be used to communicate with ground stations on earth or with other spacecraft 20 electrical power edit the supply of electric power on spacecraft generally come from photovoltaic solar cells or from a radioisotope thermoelectric generator other components of the subsystem include batteries for storing power and distribution circuitry that connects components to the power sources 21 temperature control and protection from the environment edit main article spacecraft thermal control spacecraft are often protected from temperature fluctuations with insulation some spacecraft use mirrors and sunshades for additional protection from solar heating they also often need shielding from micrometeoroids and orbital debris 22 propulsion edit main article spacecraft propulsion spacecraft propulsion is a method that allows a spacecraft to travel through space by generating thrust to push it forward 23 however there is not one universally used propulsion system monopropellant bipropellant ion propulsion etc each propulsion system generates thrust in different ways with each system having advantages and disadvantages most spacecraft propulsion today is based on rocket engines the general idea behind rocket engines is that when an oxidizer meets the fuel source there is explosive release of energy and heat at high speeds which propels the spacecraft forward this happens due to one basic principle known as newton s third law according to newton to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction as the energy and heat is being released from the back of the spacecraft gas particles are pushed that allow the spacecraft to propel forward the main reason behind the use of rocket engines today is because rockets are the most powerful form of propulsion monopropellant edit for a propulsion system to work there is usually an oxidizer line and a fuel line this way the spacecraft propulsion is controlled but in a monopropellant propulsion there is no need for an oxidizer line and only the system only requires the fuel line 24 this works due to the oxidizer being chemically bonded into the fuel molecule itself but for the propulsion system to be controlled the combustion of the fuel can only occur due to the presence of a catalyst this is advantageous due to making the rocket engine lighter less expensive easy to control and more reliable but the disadvantage is that the chemical is dangerous to manufacture store and transport bipropellant edit a bipropellant propulsion system is a rocket engine that uses a liquid propellant 25 this means both the oxidizer and fuel line are in liquid states this system is unique because it requires no ignition system the two liquids would spontaneously combust as soon as they come into contact with each other thus producing the propulsion to push the spacecraft forward the main benefit for having this technology is that these kinds of liquids have relatively high density which allow the volume of the propellent tank to be small therefore increasing space efficacy the downside is the same as that of monopropellant propulsion system dangerous to manufacture store and transport ion edit an ion propulsion system is a type of engine that generates thrust by the means of electron bombardment or the acceleration of ions 26 by shooting high energy electrons to a propellant atom neutrally charged it removes electrons from the propellant atom resulting in the propellant atom becoming positively charged the positively charged ions running at high voltages are guided through positively charged grids that contain thousands of precisely aligned holes the aligned positively charged ions accelerate through a negatively charged accelerator grid that further increases their speed up to 40 kilometres per second 90 000 mph the momentum of these ions provides the thrust to propel the spacecraft the advantage of having this kind of propulsion is that it is incredibly efficient in maintaining constant velocity which is needed for deep space travel however the amount of thrust produced is extremely low and it needs substantial electrical power to operate mechanical devices edit mechanical components often need to be moved for deployment after launch or prior to landing in addition to the use of motors many one time movements are controlled by pyrotechnic devices 27 robotic vs uncrewed spacecraft edit robotic spacecraft are specifically designed system for a specific hostile environment 28 due to their specification for a particular environment it varies greatly in complexity and capabilities while an uncrewed spacecraft is a spacecraft without personnel or crew and is operated by automatic proceeds with an action without human intervention or remote control with human intervention the term uncrewed spacecraft does not imply that the spacecraft is robotic citation needed robotic rover robotic spacecraft use telemetry to radio back to earth acquired data and vehicle status information although generally referred to as remotely controlled or telerobotic the earliest orbital spacecraft such as sputnik 1 and explorer 1 did not receive control signals from earth soon after these first spacecraft command systems were developed to allow remote control from the ground increased autonomy is important for distant probes where the light travel time prevents rapid decision and control from earth newer probes such as cassini huygens and the mars exploration rovers are highly autonomous and use on board computers to operate independently for extended periods of time 29 30 space probes edit main article space probe further information list of solar system probes a space probe is a robotic spacecraft that does not orbit earth but instead explores the outer space space probes have different sets of scientific instruments on board a space probe may approach the moon travel through interplanetary space flyby orbit or land on other planetary bodies or enter interstellar space space probes send collected data to earth space probes can also gather materials from its target and return it to earth 31 32 once a probe has left the vicinity of earth its trajectory will likely take it along an orbit around the sun similar to the earth s orbit to reach another planet the simplest practical method is a hohmann transfer orbit more complex techniques such as gravitational slingshots can be more fuel efficient though they may require the probe to spend more time in transit some high delta v missions such as those with high inclination changes can only be performed using gravitational slingshots a technique using very little propulsion but requiring a considerable amount of time is to follow a trajectory on the interplanetary transport network 33 space telescopes edit main article space telescope further information list of space telescopes a space telescope or space observatory is a telescope in outer space used to observe astronomical objects space telescopes avoid the filtering and distortion of electromagnetic radiation which they obse...
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