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ative alaskans infanticide became forbidden in the near east during the 1st millennium christianity forbade infanticide from its earliest times which led constantine the great and valentinian i to ban infanticide across the roman empire in the 4th century the practice ceased in arabia in the 7th century after the founding of islam since the quran prohibits infanticide 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 infanticide of male babies had become uncommon in china by the ming dynasty 1368 1644 whereas infanticide of female babies became more common during the one child policy era 1979 2015 during the period of company rule in india the east india company attempted to eliminate infanticide but were only partially successful and female infanticide in some parts of india still continues infanticide is very rare in industrialised countries but may persist elsewhere parental infanticide researchers have found that mothers are more likely to commit infanticide 11 in the special case of neonaticide murder in the first 24 hours of life mothers account for almost all the perpetrators fatherly cases of neonaticide are so rare that they are individually recorded 12 history edit infanticidio by mexican artist antonio garcía vega the practice of infanticide has taken many forms over time child sacrifice to supernatural figures or forces such as that believed to have been practiced in ancient carthage may be only the most notorious example in the ancient world a frequent method of infanticide in ancient europe and asia was simply to abandon the infant leaving it to die by exposure i e hypothermia hunger thirst or animal attack 13 14 on at least one island in oceania infanticide was carried out until the 20th century by suffocating the infant 15 while in pre columbian mesoamerica and in the inca empire it was carried out by sacrifice see below a minority of academics subscribe to an alternate school of thought considering the practice as early infanticidal childrearing 16 246 47 they attribute parental infanticidal wishes to massive projection or displacement of the parents unconscious onto the child because of intergenerational ancestral abuse by their own parents 17 clearly an infanticidal parent may have multiple motivations conflicts emotions and thoughts about their baby and their relationship with their baby which are often colored both by their individual psychology current relational context and attachment history and perhaps most saliently their psychopathology 18 almeida merminod and schechter suggest that parents with fantasies projections and delusions involving infanticide need to be taken seriously and assessed carefully whenever possible by an interdisciplinary team that includes infant mental health specialists or mental health practitioners who have experience in working with parents children and families paleolithic and neolithic edit many neolithic groups routinely resorted to infanticide in order to control their numbers so that their lands could support them joseph birdsell believed that infanticide rates in prehistoric times were between 15 and 50 of the total number of births 19 while laila williamson estimated a lower rate ranging from 15 to 20 1 66 both anthropologists believed that these high rates of infanticide persisted until the development of agriculture during the neolithic revolution 20 19 a book published in 1981 stated that comparative anthropologists estimated that 50 of female newborn babies may have been killed by their parents during the paleolithic era 21 the anthropologist raymond dart has interpreted fractures on the skulls of hominid infants e g the taung child as due to deliberate killing followed by cannibalism but such explanations are by now considered uncertain and possibly wrong 22 children were not necessarily actively killed but neglect and intentional malnourishment may also have occurred as proposed by vicente lull as an explanation for an apparent surplus of men and the below average height of women in prehistoric menorca 23 in ancient history edit in the new world edit main article child sacrifice in pre columbian cultures skeletal remains of children from a ritual sacrifice discovered at tlatelolco exhibited at the national museum of anthropology in mexico city archaeologists have uncovered physical evidence of child sacrifice at several locations 20 16 22 some of the best attested examples are the diverse rites which were part of the religious practices in mesoamerica and the inca empire 24 25 26 in the old world edit three thousand bones of young children with evidence of sacrificial rituals have been found in sardinia pelasgians offered a sacrifice of every tenth child during difficult times many remains of children have been found in gezer excavations with signs of sacrifice child skeletons with the marks of sacrifice have been found also in egypt dating 950 720 bce 27 child sacrifice was particularly widespread in ancient carthage 20 324 besides the carthaginians other phoenicians and the canaanites moabites and sepharvites offered their first born as a sacrifice to their gods ancient egypt edit in egyptian households at all social levels children of both sexes were valued and there is no evidence of infanticide 28 the religion of the ancient egyptians forbade infanticide and during the greco roman period they rescued abandoned babies from manure heaps a common method of infanticide by greeks or romans and were allowed to either adopt them as foundling or raise them as slaves often giving them names such as copro to memorialize their rescue 29 strabo considered it a peculiarity of the egyptians that every child must be reared 30 diodorus indicates infanticide was a punishable offence 31 egypt was heavily dependent on the annual flooding of the nile to irrigate the land and in years of low inundation severe famine could occur with breakdowns in social order resulting notably between 930 1070 ce and 1180 1350 ce instances of cannibalism are recorded during these periods but it is unknown if this happened during the pharaonic era of ancient egypt 32 beatrix midant reynes describes human sacrifice as having occurred at abydos in the early dynastic period c 3150 2850 bce 33 while jan assmann asserts there is no clear evidence of human sacrifice ever happening in ancient egypt 34 carthage edit main article carthaginian religion child sacrifice question according to shelby brown carthaginians descendants of the phoenicians sacrificed infants to their gods 35 charred bones of hundreds of infants have been found in carthaginian archaeological sites one such area harbored as many as 20 000 burial urns 35 skeptics suggest that the bodies of children found in carthaginian and phoenician cemeteries were merely the cremated remains of children who died naturally 36 plutarch c 46 120 ce mentions the practice as do tertullian orosius diodorus siculus and philo the hebrew bible also mentions what appears to be child sacrifice practiced at a place called the tophet from the hebrew taph or toph to burn by the canaanites writing in the 3rd century bce kleitarchos one of the historians of alexander the great described that the infants rolled into the flaming pit diodorus siculus wrote that babies were roasted to death inside the burning pit of the god baal hamon a bronze statue 37 38 greece and rome edit medea killing her sons by eugène ferdinand victor delacroix 1862 the historical greeks considered the practice of adult and child sacrifice barbarous 39 however infant exposure was widely practiced in ancient greece 40 41 42 it was advocated by aristotle in the case of congenital deformity as to the exposure of children let there be a law that no deformed child shall live 43 44 in greece the decision to expose a child was typically the father s although in sparta the decision was made by a group of elders 45 exposure was the preferred method of disposal as that act in itself was not considered to be murder moreover the exposed child technically had a chance of being rescued by the gods or any passersby 46 this very situation was a recurring motif in greek mythology the practice was prevalent in ancient rome as well philo was the first known philosopher to speak out against it 47 48 a letter from a roman citizen to his sister or a pregnant wife from her husband 49 dating from 1 bce demonstrates the casual nature with which infanticide was often viewed i am still in alexandria i beg and plead with you to take care of our little child and as soon as we receive wages i will send them to you in the meantime if good fortune to you you give birth if it is a boy let it live if it is a girl expose it 50 51 52 massacre of the innocents by julius schnorr von karolsfeld 1860 in some periods of roman history it was traditional for a newborn to be brought to the pater familias the family patriarch who would then decide whether the child was to be kept and raised or left to die by exposure 53 the twelve tables of roman law obliged him to put to death a child that was visibly deformed the concurrent practices of slavery and infanticide contributed to the background noise of the crises during the republic 53 infanticide became a capital offense in roman law in 374 but offenders were rarely if ever prosecuted 54 according to mythology romulus and remus twin infant sons of the war god mars survived near infanticide after being tossed into the tiber river according to the myth they were raised by wolves and later founded the city of rome middle ages edit whereas theologians and clerics preached sparing their lives newborn abandonment continued as registered in both the literature record and in legal documents 14 16 according to william lecky exposure in the early middle ages as distinct from other forms of infanticide was practiced on a gigantic scale with absolute impunity noticed by writers with most frigid indifference and at least in the case of destitute parents considered a very venial offence 55 355 56 however the first foundling house in europe was established in milan in 787 on account of the high number of infanticides and out of wedlock births the hospital of the holy spirit in rome was founded by pope innocent iii because women were throwing their infants into the tiber river 56 unlike other european regions in the middle ages the german mother had the right to expose the newborn 57 generally unwanted children were often abandoned in the high middle ages usually by leaving them at the door of a church or abbey if the baby was found in time the clergy would take care of their upbringing which gave rise to the first orphanages however very high sex ratios were common in even late medieval europe which may indicate sex selective infanticide 58 the waldensians a pre reformation medieval christian sect deemed heretical by the catholic church were accused of participating in infanticide 59 judaism edit in this depiction of the binding of isaac by julius schnorr von karolsfeld 1860 abraham is shown not sacrificing isaac judaism prohibits infanticide and has for some time dating back to at least the early common era roman historians wrote about the ideas and customs of other peoples which often diverged from their own tacitus recorded that the jews take thought to increase their numbers for they regard it as a crime to kill any late born children 60 josephus whose works give an important insight into 1st century judaism wrote that god forbids women to cause abortion of what is begotten or to destroy it afterward 61 pagan european tribes edit in his book germania tacitus wrote in 98 ce that the ancient germanic tribes enforced a similar prohibition he found such mores remarkable and commented to restrain generation and the increase of children is esteemed by the germans an abominable sin as also to kill infants newly born 62 it has become clear over the millennia though that tacitus description was inaccurate the consensus of modern scholarship significantly differs john boswell believed that in ancient germanic tribes unwanted children were exposed usually in the forest 63 218 it was the custom of the teutonic pagans that if they wanted to kill a son or daughter they would be killed before they had been given any food 63 211 usually children born out of wedlock were disposed of that way in his highly influential pre historic times john lubbock described burnt bones indicating the practice of child sacrifice in pagan britain 64 christianity edit christianity explicitly rejects infanticide the teachings of the apostles or didache states thou shalt not kill a child by abortion neither shalt thou slay it when born 65 the epistle of barnabas makes a similar statement 66 early christian writers such as tertullian athenagoras minucius felix justin martyr and lactantius also maintained that exposing a baby to death was a wicked act 13 in 318 constantine i considered infanticide a crime and in 374 valentinian i mandated the rearing of all children exposing babies especially girls was still common the council of constantinople declared that infanticide was homicide and in 589 the third council of toledo took measures against the custom of killing their own children 54 christianity thus played a leading role in the abolition of infanticide in the roman empire 67 arabia edit some muslim sources allege that pre islamic arabian society practiced infanticide as a form of post partum birth control 68 the word waʾd was used to describe the practice 69 these sources state that infanticide was practiced either out of destitution thus practiced on males and females alike or as disappointment and fear of social disgrace felt by a father upon the birth of a daughter 68 some authors believe that there is little evidence that infanticide was prevalent in pre islamic arabia or early muslim history except for the case of the tamim tribe who practiced it during severe famine according to islamic sources 70 8 others state that female infanticide was common all over arabia during this period of time pre islamic arabia especially by burying alive a female newborn 20 59 71 a tablet discovered in yemen forbidding the people of a certain town from engaging in the practice is the only written reference to infanticide within the peninsula in pre islamic times 72 islam edit infanticide is explicitly prohibited by the qur an 73 and do not kill your children for fear of poverty we give them sustenance and yourselves too surely to kill them is a great wrong 74 together with polytheism and homicide infanticide is regarded as a grave sin see 6 151 and 60 12 68 infanticide is also implicitly denounced in the story of pharaoh s slaughter of the male children of israelites see 2 49 7 127 7 141 14 6 28 4 40 25 68 ukraine and russia edit femme russe abandonnant ses enfants à des loups russian woman abandoning her children to the wolves charles michel geoffroy fr 1845 infanticide may have been practiced as human sacrifice as part of the pagan cult of perun ibn fadlan descr...
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