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dge and suggest that speech may have emerged due to an increase in complex social interactions 187 archaic homo sapiens edit hmmmmm redirects here for humming see humming disambiguation further information archaic humans steven mithen proposed the term hmmmmm for the pre linguistic system of communication posited to have been used by archaic homo beginning with homo ergaster and reaching the highest sophistication in the middle pleistocene with homo heidelbergensis and homo neanderthalensis hmmmmm is an acronym for h olistic non compositional m anipulative utterances are commands or suggestions not descriptive statements m ulti m odal acoustic as well as gestural and facial m usical and m imetic 188 homo erectus edit evidence for homo erectus potentially using language comes in the form of acheulean tool usage the use of abstract thought in the formation of acheulean hand axes coincides with the symbol creation necessary for simple language 189 recent language theories present recursion as the unique facet of human language and theory of mind 190 191 however breaking down language into its symbolic parts separating meaning from the requirements of grammar it becomes possible to see that language does not depend on either recursion or grammar this can be evidenced by the pirahã language users in brazil that have no myth or creation stories no numbers and no colors within their language 192 this is to highlight that even though grammar may have been unavailable use of foresight planning and symbolic thought can be evidence of language as early as one million years ago with homo erectus homo heidelbergensis edit see also homo heidelbergensis language homo heidelbergensis was a close relative most probably a migratory descendant of homo ergaster some researchers believe this species to be the first hominin to make controlled vocalisations possibly mimicking animal vocalisations 188 and that as homo heidelbergensis developed more sophisticated culture proceeded from this point and possibly developed an early form of symbolic language homo neanderthalensis edit see also neanderthal behavior language the discovery in 1989 of the neanderthal kebara 2 hyoid bone suggests that neanderthals may have been anatomically capable of producing sounds similar to modern humans 193 194 the hypoglossal nerve which passes through the hypoglossal canal controls the movements of the tongue which may have enabled voicing for size exaggeration see size exaggeration hypothesis below or may reflect speech abilities 25 195 196 197 198 199 however although neanderthals may have been anatomically able to speak richard g klein in 2004 doubted that they possessed a fully modern language he largely bases his doubts on the fossil record of archaic humans and their stone tool kit bart de boer in 2017 acknowledges this ambiguity of a universally accepted neanderthal vocal tract however he notes the similarities in the thoracic vertebral canal potential air sacs and hyoid bones between modern humans and neanderthals to suggest the presence of complex speech 200 for two million years following the emergence of homo habilis the stone tool technology of hominins changed very little klein who has worked extensively on ancient stone tools describes the crude stone tool kit of archaic humans as impossible to break down into categories based on their function and reports that neanderthals seem to have had little concern for the final aesthetic form of their tools klein argues that the neanderthal brain may have not reached the level of complexity required for modern speech even if the physical apparatus for speech production was well developed 201 202 the issue of the neanderthal s level of cultural and technological sophistication remains a controversial one citation needed based on computer simulations used to evaluate that evolution of language that resulted in showing three stages in the evolution of syntax neanderthals are thought to have been in stage 2 showing they had something more evolved than proto language but not quite as complex as the language of modern humans 203 some researchers applying auditory bioengineering models to computerised tomography scans of neanderthal skulls have asserted that neanderthals had auditory capacity very similar to that of anatomically modern humans 204 these researchers claim that this finding implies that neanderthals evolved the auditory capacities to support a vocal communication system as efficient as modern human speech 204 homo sapiens edit see also anatomically modern humans and behavioral modernity anatomically modern humans begin to appear in the fossil record in ethiopia some 200 000 years ago 205 although there is still much debate as to whether behavioural modernity emerged in africa at around the same time a growing number of archaeologists nowadays when invoke the southern african middle stone age use of red ochre pigments for example at blombos cave as evidence that modern anatomy and behaviour co evolved 206 these archaeologists argue strongly that if modern humans at this early stage were using red ochre pigments for ritual and symbolic purposes they probably had symbolic language as well 27 according to the recent african origins hypothesis from around 60 000 50 000 years ago 207 a group of humans left africa and began migrating to occupy the rest of the world carrying language and symbolic culture with them 208 descended larynx edit this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed may 2021 learn how and when to remove this message the larynx or voice box is an organ in the neck housing the vocal folds which are responsible for phonation in humans the larynx is descended the human species is not unique in this respect goats dogs pigs and tamarins lower the larynx temporarily to emit loud calls 209 several deer species have a permanently lowered larynx which may be lowered still further by males during their roaring displays 210 lions jaguars cheetahs and domestic cats also do this 211 however laryngeal descent in nonhumans according to philip lieberman is not accompanied by descent of the hyoid hence the tongue remains horizontal in the oral cavity preventing it from acting as a pharyngeal articulator 212 larynx anatomy of the larynx anterolateral view anatomical terminology edit on wikidata despite all this scholars remain divided as to how special the human vocal tract really is it has been shown that the larynx does descend to some extent during development in chimpanzees followed by hyoidal descent 213 as against this philip lieberman points out that only humans have evolved permanent and substantial laryngeal descent in association with hyoidal descent resulting in a curved tongue and two tube vocal tract with 1 1 proportions he argues that neanderthals and early anatomically modern humans could not have possessed supralaryngeal vocal tracts capable of producing fully human speech 214 uniquely in the human case simple contact between the epiglottis and velum is no longer possible disrupting the normal mammalian separation of the respiratory and digestive tracts during swallowing since this entails substantial costs increasing the risk of choking while swallowing food we are forced to ask what benefits might have outweighed those costs the obvious benefit so it is claimed must have been speech but this idea has been vigorously contested one objection is that humans are in fact not seriously at risk of choking on food medical statistics indicate that accidents of this kind are extremely rare 215 another objection is that in the view of most scholars speech as it is known emerged relatively late in human evolution roughly contemporaneously with the emergence of homo sapiens 216 a development as complex as the reconfiguration of the human vocal tract would have required much more time implying an early date of origin this discrepancy in timescales undermines the idea that human vocal flexibility was initially driven by selection pressures for speech thus not excluding that it was selected for e g improved singing ability size exaggeration hypothesis edit to lower the larynx is to increase the length of the vocal tract in turn lowering formant frequencies so that the voice sounds deeper giving an impression of greater size john ohala argues that the function of the lowered larynx in humans especially males is probably to enhance threat displays rather than speech itself 217 ohala points out that if the lowered larynx were an adaptation for speech adult human males would be expected to be better adapted in this respect than adult females whose larynx is considerably less low however females outperform males in verbal tests 218 falsifying this whole line of reasoning w tecumseh fitch likewise argues that this was the original selective advantage of laryngeal lowering in the human species although according to fitch the initial lowering of the larynx in humans had nothing to do with speech the increased range of possible formant patterns was subsequently co opted for speech size exaggeration remains the sole function of the extreme laryngeal descent observed in male deer consistent with the size exaggeration hypothesis a second descent of the larynx occurs at puberty in humans although only in males in response to the objection that the larynx is descended in human females fitch suggests that mothers vocalizing to protect their infants would also have benefited from this ability 219 phonemic diversity edit in 2011 quentin atkinson published a survey of phonemes from 500 different languages as well as language families and compared their phonemic diversity by region number of speakers and distance from africa the survey revealed that african languages had the largest number of phonemes and oceania and south america had the smallest number after allowing for the number of speakers the phonemic diversity was compared to over 2000 possible origin locations atkinson s best fit model is that language originated in western central or southern africa between 80 000 and 160 000 years ago this predates the hypothesized southern coastal peopling of arabia india southeast asia and australia it would also mean that the origin of language occurred at the same time as the emergence of symbolic culture 220 numerous linguists 221 222 223 have criticized atkinson s paper as misrepresenting both the phonemic data and processes of linguistic change as language complexity does not necessarily correspond to age and of failing to take into account the borrowing of phonemes from neighbouring languages as some bantu languages have done with click consonants 223 recreations of his method gave possible origins of language in the caucasus 221 and turkmenistan 222 in addition to southern and eastern africa history edit in religion and mythology edit main article mythical origins of language see also divine language and adamic language the tower of babel by pieter bruegel the elder 1563 the search for the origin of language has a long history in mythology most mythologies do not credit humans with the invention of language but speak of a divine language predating human language mystical languages used to communicate with animals or spirits such as the language of the birds are also common and were of particular interest during the renaissance vāc is the hindu goddess of speech or speech personified as brahman s sacred utterance she has a cosmological role as the mother of the vedas the aztecs story maintains that only a man coxcox and a woman xochiquetzal survived a flood having floated on a piece of bark they found themselves on land and had many children who were at first born unable to speak but subsequently upon the arrival of a dove were endowed with language although each one was given a different speech such that they could not understand one another 224 in the old testament the book of genesis chapter 11 says that god prevented the tower of babel from being completed through a miracle that made its construction workers start speaking different languages after this they migrated to other regions grouped together according to which of the newly created languages they spoke explaining the origins of languages and nations outside of the fertile crescent 225 historical experiments edit main article language deprivation experiments history contains a number of anecdotes about people who attempted to discover the origin of language by experiment the first such tale was told by herodotus histories 2 2 he relates that pharaoh psammetichus probably psammetichus i 7th century bc had two children raised by a shepherd with the instructions that no one should speak to them but that the shepherd should feed and care for them while listening to determine their first words when one of the children cried bekos with outstretched arms the shepherd concluded that the word was phrygian because that was the sound of the phrygian word for bread from this psammetichus concluded that the first language was phrygian king james iv of scotland is said to have tried a similar experiment his children were supposed to have spoken hebrew 226 both the medieval monarch frederick ii and akbar are said to have tried similar experiments the children involved in these experiments did not speak the current situation of deaf people also points into this direction clarification needed history of research edit main article evolutionary linguistics modern linguistics did not begin until the late 18th century and the romantic or animist theses of johann gottfried herder and johann christoph adelung remained influential well into the 19th century the question of language origin seemed inaccessible to methodical approaches and in 1866 the linguistic society of paris famously banned all discussion of the origin of language deeming it to be an unanswerable problem an increasingly systematic approach to historical linguistics developed in the course of the 19th century reaching its culmination in the neogrammarian school of karl brugmann and others citation needed however scholarly interest in the question of the origin of language has only gradually been revived from the 1950s on and then controversially with ideas such as universal grammar mass comparison and glottochronology citation needed the origin of language as a subject in its own right emerged from studies in neurolinguistics psycholinguistics and human evolution the linguistic bibliography introduced origin of language as a separate heading in 1988 as a sub topic of psycholinguistics dedicated research institutes of evolutionary linguistics are a recent phenomenon emerging only in the 1990s 227 see also edit abiogenesis biolinguistics bouba kiki effect bow wow theory digital infinity essay on the origin of languages evolutionary psychology of language foxp2 and human evolution generative anthropology h...
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