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ted to outputting minimum energy in a habitat with very little food or available energy not even sunlight only bioluminescence their bodies are elongated with weak watery muscles and skeletal structures since so much of the fish is water they are not compressed by the great pressures at these depths they often have extensible hinged jaws with recurved teeth they are slimy without scales the central nervous system is confined to the lateral line and olfactory systems the eyes are small and may not function and gills kidneys and hearts and swimbladders are small or missing 40 45 these are the same features found in fish larvae which suggests that during their evolution bathypelagic fish have acquired these features through neoteny as with larvae these features allow the fish to remain suspended in the water with little expenditure of energy 46 despite their ferocious appearance these beasts of the deep are mostly miniature fish with weak muscles and are too small to represent any threat to humans the swimbladders of deep sea fish are either absent or scarcely operational and bathypelagic fish do not normally undertake vertical migrations filling bladders at such great pressures incurs huge energy costs some deep sea fishes have swimbladders that function while they are young and inhabit the upper epipelagic zone but they wither or fill with fat when the fish move down to their adult habitat 47 the most important sensory systems are usually the inner ear which responds to sound and the lateral line which responds to changes in water pressure the olfactory system also can be important for males who find females by smell 48 bathypelagic fish are black or sometimes red with few photophores when photophores are used it is usually to entice prey or attract a mate because food is so scarce bathypelagic predators are not selective in their feeding habits but grab whatever comes close enough they accomplish this by having a large mouth with sharp teeth for grabbing large prey and overlapping gill rakers that prevent small prey that have been swallowed from escaping 45 it is not easy finding a mate in this zone some species depend on bioluminescence others are hermaphrodites which doubles their chances of producing both eggs and sperm when an encounter occurs 40 the female anglerfish releases pheromones to attract tiny males when a male finds her he bites onto her and never lets go when a male of the anglerfish species haplophryne mollis bites into the skin of a female he release an enzyme that digests the skin of his mouth and her body fusing the pair to the point where the two circulatory systems join up the male then atrophies into nothing more than a pair of gonads this extreme sexual dimorphism ensures that when the female is ready to spawn she has a mate immediately available 49 many animal forms other than fish live in the bathypelagic zone such as squid large whales octopuses sponges brachiopods sea stars and echinoids but this zone is difficult for fish to live in the gulper eel uses its mouth like a net by opening its large mouth and swimming at its prey it has a luminescent organ at the tip of its tail to attract prey the black swallower with its distensible stomach is notable for its ability to swallow whole bony fishes ten times its mass 50 51 female haplophryne mollis anglerfish trailing attached males that have atrophied into a pair of gonads for use when the female is ready to spawn the widespread fangtooth has the largest teeth of any fish proportionate to body size 52 despite their ferocious appearance bathypelagic fish are usually weakly muscled and too small to represent any threat to humans the sloane s viperfish can make nightly migrations from bathypelagic depths to near surface waters 53 demersal fish edit this section may contain information not important or relevant to the article s subject relevant discussion may be found on the talk page please help improve this section 2026 05 19 learn how and when to remove this message giant grenadier an elongate benthic fish with large eyes and well developed lateral lines see also demersal fish demersal fish live on or near the bottom of the sea 54 demersal fish are found by the seafloor in coastal areas on the continental shelf and in the open ocean they are found along the outer continental margin on the continental slope and the continental rise they are not generally found at abyssopelagic or hadopelagic depths or on the abyssal plain they occupy a range of seafloors consisting of mud sand gravel or rocks 54 in deep waters the fishes of the demersal zone are active and relatively abundant compared to fishes of the bathypelagic zone 44 rattails and brotulas are common and other well established families are eels eelpouts hagfishes greeneyes batfishes and lumpfishes 45 the bodies of deep water benthic fishes are muscular with well developed organs in this way they are closer to mesopelagic fishes than bathopelagic fishes in other ways they are more variable photophores are usually absent eyes and swimbladders range from absent to well developed they vary in size with larger species greater than one metre not uncommon deep sea benthic fish are usually long and narrow many are eels or shaped like eels this may be because long bodies have long lateral lines lateral lines detect low frequency sounds and some benthic fishes appear to have muscles that drum such sounds to attract mates 18 smell is also important as indicated by the rapidity with which benthic fish find traps baited with bait fish the main diet of deep sea benthic fish is invertebrates of the deep sea benthos and carrion smell touch and lateral line sensitivities seem to be the main sensory devices for locating these 55 deep sea benthic fish can be divided into strictly benthic fish and benthopelagic fish usually strictly benthic fish are negatively buoyant while benthopelagic fish are neutrally buoyant strictly benthic fish stay in constant contact with the bottom they either lie in wait as ambush predators or move actively over the bottom in search for food 55 orange roughy patagonian toothfish benthopelagic fish edit see also benthopelagic fish benthopelagic fish inhabit the water just above the bottom feeding on benthos and benthopelagic zooplankton 56 most dermersal fish are benthopelagic 54 they can be divided into flabby or robust body types flabby benthopelagic fishes are like bathopelagic fishes they have a reduced body mass and low metabolic rates expending minimal energy as they lie and wait to ambush prey 57 an example of a flabby fish is the cusk eel acanthonus armatus 58 a predator with a huge head and a body that is 90 water this fish has the largest ears otoliths and the smallest brain in relation to its body size of all known vertebrates 59 robust benthopelagic fish are muscular swimmers that actively cruise the bottom searching for prey they may live around features such as seamounts which have strong currents 59 examples are the orange roughy and patagonian toothfish because these fish were once abundant and because their robust bodies are good to eat these fish have been harvested commercially 60 61 benthic fish edit see also benthic fish benthic fish are not pelagic fish but they are discussed here briefly by way of completeness and contrast some fishes do not fit into the above classification for example the family of nearly blind spiderfishes common and widely distributed feed on benthopelagic zooplankton yet they are strictly benthic fish since they stay in contact with the bottom their fins have long rays they use to stand on the bottom while they face the current and grab zooplankton as it passes by 62 the deepest living fish known the strictly benthic abyssobrotula galatheae eel like and blind feeds on benthic invertebrates 63 64 pacific hagfish resting on bottom hagfish coat themselves and any dead fish they find with noxious slime making them inedible to other species the tripodfish bathypterois grallator a species of spiderfish uses its fin extensions to stand on the bottom 65 the blotched fantail ray feeds on bottom dwelling fish bivalves crabs and shrimps 66 cross section of an ocean basin note significant vertical exaggeration at great depths food scarcity and extreme pressure works to limit the survivability of fish the deepest point of the ocean is about 11 000 metres 6 8 miles bathypelagic fishes are not normally found below 3 000 metres 1 9 miles the greatest depth recorded for a benthic fish is 8 370 m 5 20 mi 67 it may be that extreme pressures interfere with essential enzyme functions 40 benthic fishes are more diverse and are likely to be found on the continental slope where there is habitat diversity and often food supplies approximately 40 of the ocean floor consists of abyssal plains but these flat featureless regions are covered with sediment and largely devoid of benthic life benthos deep sea benthic fishes are more likely to associate with canyons or rock outcroppings among the plains where invertebrate communities are established undersea mountains seamounts can intercept deep sea currents and cause productive upwellings that support benthic fish undersea mountain ranges may separate underwater regions into different ecosystems 17 pelagic fisheries edit forage fish edit pelagic predator tuna billfish shark forage herring sardine anchovy menhaden demersal benthopelagic cod benthic flatfish major marine wild fisheries see also forage fish small pelagic fish are usually forage fish that are hunted by larger pelagic fish and other predators forage fish filter feed on plankton and are usually less than 10 centimetres 3 9 inches long they often stay together in schools and may migrate large distances between spawning grounds and feeding grounds they are found particularly in upwelling regions around the northeast atlantic off the coast of japan and off the west coasts of africa and the americas forage fish are generally short lived and their stocks fluctuate markedly over the years 68 herring are found in the north sea and the north atlantic at depths to 200 metres 660 feet important herring fisheries have existed in these areas for centuries herring of different sizes and growth rates belong to different populations each of which have their own migration routes when spawning a female produces from 20 000 to 50 000 eggs after spawning the herrings are depleted of fat and migrate back to feeding grounds rich in plankton 69 around iceland three separate populations of herring were fished traditionally these stocks collapsed in the late 1960s although two have since recovered after the collapse iceland turned to capelin which now account for about half of iceland s total catch 70 blue whiting are found in the open ocean and above the continental slope at depths between 100 and 1000 meters they follow vertical migrations of the zooplankton they feed on to the bottom during daytime and to the surface at night time 69 71 traditional fisheries for anchovies and sardines also have operated in the pacific the mediterranean and the southeast atlantic 72 the world annual catch of forage fish in recent years has been approximately 22 million tonnes or one quarter of the world s total catch these schooling pacific sardines are forage fish herrings ram feeding on copepods capelin anchovies peruvian anchoveta predator fish edit see also predator fish medium size pelagic fishes include trevally barracuda flying fish bonito mahi mahi and coastal mackerel 1 many of these fish hunt forage fish but are in turn hunted by yet larger pelagic fish nearly all fish are predator fish to some measure and apart from the top predators the distinction between predator fish and prey or forage fish is somewhat artificial 73 around europe there are three populations of coastal mackerel one population migrates to the north sea another stays in the waters of the irish sea and the third population migrates southward along the west coast of scotland and ireland the cruise speed of the mackerel is an impressive 10 kilometres per hour 69 74 many large pelagic fish are oceanic nomadic species that undertake long offshore migrations they feed on small pelagic forage fish as well as medium sized pelagic fish at times they follow their schooling prey and many species form schools themselves examples of larger pelagic fish are tuna billfish king mackerel sharks and large rays tuna in particular are of major importance to commercial fisheries although tuna migrate across oceans trying to find them there is not the usual approach tuna tend to congregate in areas where food is abundant along the boundaries of currents around islands near seamounts and in some areas of upwelling along continental slopes tuna are captured by several methods purse seine vessels enclose an entire surface school with special nets pole and line vessels that use poles baited with other smaller pelagic fish as baitfish and rafts called fish aggregating devices are set up because tuna as well as some other pelagic fish tend to congregate under floating objects 1 other large pelagic fish are premier game fish particularly marlin and swordfish yellowfin tuna are being fished as a replacement for the now largely depleted southern bluefin tuna atlantic pomfret swordfish king mackerels cruise on long migrations at 10 kilometres per hour 69 74 major ocean surface currents areas of upwelling in red pacific decadal anomalies april 2008 productivity edit upwelling occurs both along coastlines and in midocean when a collision of deep ocean currents brings cold water that is rich in nutrients to the surface these upwellings support blooms of phytoplankton which in turn produce zooplankton and support many of the world s main fisheries if the upwelling fails then fisheries in the area fail 14 in the 1960s the peruvian anchoveta fishery was the world s largest fishery the anchoveta population was greatly reduced during the 1972 el niño event when warm water drifted over the cold humboldt current as part of a 50 year cycle lowering the depth of the thermocline the upwelling stopped and phytoplankton production plummeted as did the anchoveta population and millions of seabirds dependent on the anchoveta died 75 since the mid 1980s the upwelling has resumed and the peruvian anchoveta catch levels have returned to the 1960s levels off japan the collision of the oyashio current with the kuroshio current produces nutrient rich upwellings cyclic changes in these currents resulted in a decline in the sardine sardinops melanosticta populations fisheries catches fell from 5 million tonnes in 1988 to 280 thousand tonnes in 1998 as a further consequence pacific bluefin tuna stopped moving into the region to feed 76 77 ocean currents can shape how fish are distributed both concentrating and dispersing them adjacent ocean currents can define distinct if shifting boundaries these boundaries can even be visible but usually their 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