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soviet union many post soviet conflicts took place across its former territory secessionist movements fought against their new host governments in the first nagorno karabakh war 1988 1994 transnistria war 1990 1992 south ossetia war 1991 1992 war in abkhazia 1992 1993 and in the first chechen war 1994 1996 civil conflicts over power within the new states were fought in georgia 1991 1993 in tajikistan 1992 1997 and in russia in 1993 czechoslovakia broke apart peacefully in 1993 while the breakup of yugoslavia starting in 1990 led to the bitter inter ethnic yugoslav wars of the rest of the decade following the end of the global competition between real socialism and market democracies many third way politicians emerged in the united states a leading proponent of this was 42nd president bill clinton who was in office from 1993 to 2001 57 in the united kingdom third way social democratic proponent tony blair claimed that the socialism he advocated was different from traditional conceptions of socialism and said my kind of socialism is a set of values based around notions of social justice socialism as a rigid form of economic determinism has ended and rightly 58 following german reunification european integration continued led by chancellor of germany helmut kohl and president of france françois mitterrand on 1 november 1993 the maastricht treaty became effective creating the european union with its pillar system formalising european political cooperation as the common foreign and security policy and adding the new area of justice and home affairs 59 60 on 1 january 1994 the european economic area eea entered into force allowing european free trade association efta members norway and iceland to enter the single european market created the previous year without joining the union the schengen agreement later came into effect on 26 march 1995 between 7 april and 15 july 1994 during the rwandan civil war the rwandan genocide occurred during this period of around 100 days members of the tutsi minority ethnic group as well as some moderate hutu and twa were killed by armed militias the most widely accepted scholarly estimates are around 500 000 to 662 000 tutsi deaths 61 62 the genocide had lasting and profound effects in 1996 the rpf led rwandan government launched an offensive into zaire now the democratic republic of the congo home to exiled leaders of the former rwandan government and many hutu refugees starting the first congo war and killing an estimated 200 000 people the subsequent second congo war began in august 1998 little more than a year after the first congo war and involved some of the same issues with nine african countries and around twenty five armed groups involved in the war 63 under jiang zemin s leadership china experienced substantial economic growth with the continuation of the reform and opening up saw the return of hong kong from the united kingdom in 1997 and macau from portugal in 1999 and improved its relations with the outside world while the communist party maintained its tight control over the state however during the third taiwan strait crisis a series of missile tests conducted by the people s republic of china in the waters surrounding taiwan from 21 july 1995 to 23 march 1996 leading the u s government responding by staging the biggest display of american military might in asia since the vietnam war 64 while on may 7 1999 during the nato bombing of yugoslavia u s guided bombs hit the people s republic of china embassy in the belgrade district of new belgrade killing three chinese journalists and outraging the chinese public 65 atal bihari vajpayee one of the co founders of the bharatiya janata party and a member of the rashtriya swayamsevak sangh hindu nationalist organisation became the first indian prime minister not of the indian national congress to serve a full term in office during his tenure on 28 may 1998 a few weeks after india s second nuclear test operation shakti pakistan detonated five nuclear devices during operation chagai i becoming the seventh country in the world to successfully develop and test nuclear weapons 66 the kargil war was an armed conflict fought between india and pakistan from may to july 1999 in the kargil district of jammu and kashmir and elsewhere along the line of control loc the 1999 pakistani coup d état was a bloodless coup initiated by general pervez musharraf who overthrew the publicly elected prime minister nawaz sharif on 12 october 1999 2000s edit following the september 11 attacks in 2001 by al qaeda the american led intervention in afghanistan led to the fall of the taliban government in afghanistan after the country had harboured the terrorists behind it however the us occupation of the country failed to quell the subsequent taliban insurgency during the iraqi conflict the 2003 invasion of iraq by a united states led coalition toppled the government of saddam hussein but the conflict continued as an insurgency emerged to oppose the occupying forces and the post invasion iraqi government the united states also conducted a series of military strikes on al qaeda militants in yemen since the war on terror began 67 the insurgency in khyber pakhtunkhwa began in 2004 when tensions rooted in the pakistan army s search for al qaeda fighters in the waziristan area escalated into armed resistance with pakistan s actions presented as its contribution to the war on terror 68 69 70 russia also engaged on its own largely internally focused counter terrorism campaign during the second chechen war and the insurgency in the north caucasus rising to leadership during this time vladimir putin s first tenure as president saw the russian economy grew on average by seven percent per year 71 while russia also experienced democratic backsliding and a shift to authoritarianism characterised by endemic corruption 72 73 putin became during this time the second longest serving contemporary european president after his close ally alexander lukashenko of belarus in other post communist states colour revolutions against the local elites took place including the federal republic of yugoslavia s bulldozer revolution 2000 georgia s rose revolution 2003 ukraine s orange revolution 2004 and kyrgyzstan s tulip revolution 2005 the russo georgian war place in august 2008 following a period of worsening relations between the two countries in the 2000s there was an active movement towards further consolidation of the european union with the introduction of symbols and institutions usually reserved for sovereign states such as citizenship a common currency used by 19 out of 27 members a flag an anthem and a motto in varietate concordia united in diversity an attempt to introduce a european constitution was made in 2004 but it failed to be ratified instead the treaty of lisbon was signed in 2007 in order to salvage some of the reforms that had been envisaged in the constitution the largest expansion of the european union eu in terms of territory number of states and population took place on 1 may 2004 with the simultaneous accessions of cyprus the czech republic estonia hungary latvia lithuania malta poland slovakia and slovenia seven of these were part of the former eastern bloc part of the same wave of enlargement was also the accession of bulgaria and romania in 2007 hu jintao was the paramount leader of china from 2004 to 2012 and the first leader of the communist party from a generation younger than the founders of the republic along with his colleague premier wen jiabao he presided over nearly a decade of consistent economic growth and development that cemented china as a major world power hu sought to improve socio economic equality domestically through the scientific outlook on development which aimed to build a harmonious socialist society under his leadership the authorities also cracked down on social disturbances ethnic minority protests and dissident figures which also led to many controversial events such as the unrest in tibet and the passing of the anti secession law in foreign policy hu advocated for china s peaceful development pursuing soft power in international relations and a corporate approach to diplomacy throughout hu s tenure china s influence in africa latin america and other developing regions increased in latin america the pink tide was a political wave and perception of a turn towards left wing governments in latin american democracies moving away from the neoliberal economic model at the start of the 21st century the ideology of such governments was variously described as post neoliberalism or socialism of the 21st century leaders who have advocated for this form of socialism include hugo chávez of venezuela néstor kirchner of argentina rafael correa of ecuador evo morales of bolivia and luiz inácio lula da silva of brazil 74 following its bolivarian revolution venezuela tried to export its ideology of bolivarianism into other countries of the region 75 establishing and seating regional organisations such as alba the community of latin american and caribbean states and petrocaribe some pink tide governments have been varyingly characterized by some of its critics as being anti american 76 77 and populist 78 79 80 and particularly in the case of venezuela and nicaragua as authoritarian 79 81 2010s edit the arab spring was a series of anti government protests uprisings and armed rebellions that spread across much of the arab world in the early 2010s it began in response to corruption and economic stagnation and was influenced by the tunisian revolution 82 83 from tunisia the protests then spread to five other countries libya egypt yemen syria and bahrain where either the ruler was deposed zine el abidine ben ali muammar gaddafi hosni mubarak and ali abdullah saleh or major uprisings and social violence occurred including riots civil wars or insurgencies sustained street demonstrations also took place in morocco iraq algeria lebanon jordan kuwait oman and sudan the wave of initial revolutions and protests faded by mid 2012 as many arab spring demonstrations met with violent responses from authorities as well as from pro government militias counter demonstrators and militaries large scale conflicts resulted the syrian civil war 84 85 the rise of isil insurgency in iraq and the following civil war 86 the egyptian crisis coup and subsequent unrest and insurgency 87 the libyan civil war and the yemeni crisis and following civil war 88 some referred to the succeeding conflicts as the arab winter 84 85 86 among the effects of the conflicts were the 2015 european migrant crisis the handling of the european debt crisis led to the premature end of several european national governments and influenced the outcome of many elections following the may 2012 greek parliamentary election where the popularity of pasok dropped from 42 5 in 2010 to as low as 7 in some polls in 2012 89 the term pasokification was subsequently coined to describe the decline of centre left social democratic political parties in european and other western countries during the 2010s often accompanied by the rise of nationalist left wing and right wing populist alternatives 90 91 in europe the share of votes for such parties was at its 70 year lowest in 2015 92 populist and far right political parties in turn proved very successful throughout europe in the late 2010s the 2017 french presidential election caused a radical shift in french politics as the prevailing parties of the republicans and socialists failed to make it to the second round of voting with far right marine le pen and political newcomer emmanuel macron instead facing each other 93 on 22 february 2014 ukrainian president viktor yanukovych was ousted from office as a result of the euromaidan and the revolution of dignity which broke out after his decision to reject the european union ukraine association agreement and instead pursue closer ties with russia and the eurasian economic union shortly after yanukovych s overthrow and exile to russia ukraine s eastern and southern regions erupted with pro russia unrest simultaneously unmarked russian troops moved into ukraine s crimea and took control of strategic positions and infrastructure including the crimean parliament on 27 february 2014 subsequently annexing the region in april 2014 russian separatists in eastern ukraine proclaimed the establishment of the donetsk people s republic in ukraine s donetsk oblast and the luhansk people s republic in ukraine s luhansk oblast with direct russian military involvement in the subsequent war in donbas against ukraine 94 in the united kingdom as part of a campaign pledge to win votes from eurosceptics 95 conservative prime minister david cameron promised to hold a referendum if his government was re elected his government subsequently held a referendum on continued eu membership in 2016 in which voters chose to leave the eu with 51 9 per cent of the vote share this led to his resignation his replacement by theresa may and four years of negotiations with the eu on the terms of departure and on future relations completed under a boris johnson government with government control remaining with the conservative party in this period in the united states donald trump won the 2016 united states presidential election as the republican nominee against democratic nominee hillary clinton his political positions were described as populist protectionist isolationist and nationalist in asia neo nationalism spread successfully as well chinese communist party general secretary xi jinping s concept of chinese dream was described as an expression of new nationalism 96 it pride in the historic chinese civilisation embracing the teachings of confucius and other ancient chinese sages and thus rejecting the anti confucius campaign of party chairman mao zedong 97 indian prime minister narendra modi assumed office in 2014 as a member of the rashtriya swayamsevak sangh rss a right wing paramilitary 98 organisation aligned with the bharatiya janata party which has also been said to advocate a neo nationalist ideology 99 in japan the 63rd prime minister shinzō abe in office from 2012 to 2020 a member of the right wing organisation nippon kaigi also promoted ideas of new nationalism 100 the philippine president rodrigo duterte assumed office in 2016 and his party pdp laban adopted filipino nationalism as a platform as well 101 the conservative wave emerged in the mid 2010s in latin america as the influence of leftist governments declined in argentina as the conservative liberal mauricio macri succeeded the peronist cristina fernández de kirchner in 2015 in brazil there was dilma rousseff s impeachment process that resulted in rousseff s departure and the rise of her vice president michel temer to power in 2016 in peru the conservative economist pedro pablo kuczynski succeeded ollanta humala in chile the conservative sebastián piñera succeeded the socialist michelle bachelet ...
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