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to replace bishops with a system of elective and representative governing bodies of clergy and laity local sessions presbyteries synods and ultimately a national general assembly 56 during the interregnum the presbyterians had limited success at reorganizing the church of england the westminster assembly proposed the creation of a presbyterian system but the long parliament left implementation to local authorities as a result the church of england never developed a complete presbyterian hierarchy 76 congregationalists or independents believed in the autonomy of the local church which ideally would be a congregation of visible saints meaning those who had experienced conversion 77 members would be required to abide by a church covenant in which they pledged to join in the proper worship of god and to nourish each other in the search for further religious truth 75 such churches were regarded as complete within themselves with full authority to determine their own membership administer their own discipline and ordain their own ministers furthermore the sacraments would only be administered to those in the church covenant 78 most congregational puritans remained within the church of england hoping to reform it according to their own doctrines the new england congregationalists were also adamant that they were not separating from the church of england however some puritans equated the church of england with the roman catholic church and therefore considered it to be no christian church at all these groups such as the brownists would split from the established church and become known as separatists other separatists embraced more radical positions particularly on the subject of believer s baptism and became early baptists 78 church and state edit calvin taught that if worldly rulers rise up against god then they should be put down which could be hard to reconcile with the claims of divine right monarchy 79 puritan doctrines on church and state were also affected by their doctrines about church governance with people who favoured more centralised models tending to favour a closer relationship between the church and the state as well as other foreign models and their changing relationship with the english state the initial puritan vision on the proper relationship between church and state in england was of an established 80 reformed national church on the model of calvin s geneva who had been more careful than the previous reformers luther and zwingli to keep church structures and city authorities apart 81 geneva hosted many of the marian exiles of the 1550s who formed the core of the early puritans the fellow exile john knox had implemented a reformed national church in the neighbouring kingdom of scotland in the early 1560s despite the elizabethan settlement of 1559 creating a protestant church of england with many calvinist bishops the vestments controversy of the 1570s did show the limits of puritan influence upon the church many independents 82 did not support a compulsory national church but believed that civil government should enforce godly discipline by upholding the moral teachings of scripture 82 this included the puritan settlers in the new england colonies between 1620 and 1640 who established colony supported churches and governments which closely intertwined civil law with religious practice 83 and often the right to vote linked to church membership 84 however a minority of puritan separatists known as brownists from as early as the 1580s rejected the notion of a state church altogether and argued for congregations to remain independent from civil power 78 with another separatist roger williams in 1636 setting up providence plantations with a formal separation of church and state during the interregnum led by the independent oliver cromwell starting in 1649 the parish system was retained and ministers were financed via tithes but oversight was exercised by state appointed commissions such as the triers and ejectors allowing a range of protestant congregations to receive support while excluding catholics and radical sects 85 on 27 september 1650 the rump parliament of the commonwealth of england passed an act 86 repealing the act of supremacy act of uniformity and all laws making recusancy a crime there was no longer a legal requirement to attend the parish church on sundays for both protestants and catholics in 1653 responsibility for recording births marriages and deaths was transferred from the church to a civil registrar the result was that church baptisms and marriages became private acts not guarantees of legal rights which provided greater equality to dissenters 87 the 1653 instrument of government guaranteed that in matters of religion none shall be compelled by penalties or otherwise but endeavours be used to win them by sound doctrine and the example of a good conversation religious freedom was given to all who profess faith in god by jesus christ 88 however catholics and some others were excluded no one was executed for their religion during the protectorate 88 in london people who attended catholic mass or anglican holy communion were occasionally arrested but released without charge many unofficial protestant congregations such as baptist churches were permitted to meet 89 quakers were allowed to publish freely and to hold meetings they were however arrested for disrupting parish church services and organising tithe strikes against the state church 90 after the great ejection of 1662 expelled puritans from the church of england most of them became nonconformists worshipping outside of the established church family life edit the snake in the grass or satan transform d to an angel of light title page engraved by richard gaywood c 1660 based on biblical portrayals of adam and eve puritans believed that marriage was rooted in procreation love and most importantly salvation 91 husbands were the spiritual heads of the household while women were to demonstrate religious piety and obedience under male authority 92 furthermore marriage represented not only the relationship between husband and wife but also the relationship between spouses and god puritan husbands commanded authority through family direction and prayer the female relationship to her husband and to god was marked by submissiveness and humility 93 thomas gataker describes puritan marriage as together for a time as copartners in grace here that they may reigne together forever as coheires in glory hereafter 94 the paradox created by female inferiority in the public sphere and the spiritual equality of men and women in marriage then gave way to the informal authority of women concerning matters of the home and childrearing 95 with the consent of their husbands wives made important decisions concerning the labour of their children property and the management of inns and taverns owned by their husbands 96 pious puritan mothers laboured for their children s righteousness and salvation connecting women directly to matters of religion and morality 97 in her poem titled in reference to her children poet anne bradstreet reflects on her role as a mother i had eight birds hatched in one nest four cocks there were and hens the rest i nursed them up with pain and care nor cost nor labour i did spare bradstreet alludes to the temporality of motherhood by comparing her children to a flock of birds on the precipice of leaving home while puritans praised the obedience of young children they also believed that by separating children from their mothers at adolescence children could better sustain a superior relationship with god 98 a child could only be redeemed through religious education and obedience girls carried the additional burden of eve s corruption and were catechised separately from boys at adolescence boys education prepared them for vocations and leadership roles while girls were educated for domestic and religious purposes the pinnacle of achievement for children in puritan society however occurred with the conversion process 97 puritans viewed the relationship between master and servant similarly to that of parent and child just as parents were expected to uphold puritan religious values in the home masters assumed the parental responsibility of housing and educating young servants older servants also dwelt with masters and were cared for in the event of illness or injury african american and indian servants were likely excluded from such benefits 99 gender and punishment edit many puritan communities operated under strict values that determined gender roles and generally pure behavior many of these values were shaped from their interpretation of the bible if anyone in the community was found to have disobeyed or strayed from these values they would be reported and put through the censure process this involved a public confession from the accused of their wrongdoings people would be censured for things that ranged from immodesty and cursing to domestic abuse and fornication 100 religious leaders would often make an example of the censured individual by turning their experience into a lesson for the congregation in some cases ministers or elders would meet with an individual to counsel them for a private sin such as impiety or struggles with faith before taking public action in 1648 puritan minister thomas hooker explained the necessity of church discipline god hath appointed church censures as good physick to purge out what is evill as well as word and sacraments which like good diet are sufficient to nourish the soul to eternal life they saw these practices as necessary for the community to keep each other in check and in line with their godly paths 101 while puritan doctrine viewed men and women spiritually equal laymen reinterpreted spirituality to reflect their ideas of masculinity men displayed their spirituality through their public actions and behaviors such as being a good neighbor to the community and father to their families women were expected to reflect their inner spirituality with their entire being the human soul was often described using feminine language but men were allowed to separate their mind and body from their souls in order to maintain an image of masculinity on the outside 102 the husband was the patriarch with ultimate authority and the wife would be his assistant if any of the other members of the family misbehaved such as the children or even their mother their actions reflected the capability of the father to be the head of the household 103 thus men were often called out for not fulfilling their role as a good father husband and or neighbor as a result of this reinterpretation of the puritan doctrine to reflect certain gendered beliefs the things men and women were censured for differed for example women were often associated with eve a temptress and sinful seductress this led to women being censured for fornication far more often than men 104 men on the other hand had more of a focus on civil duty being censured for filing false lawsuits arguing over property lines charging inflated prices tearing down a neighbor s mill land fraud or poor military conduct in the economic sphere women lacked formal power thus men were censured more often for poor business practices 105 the audience played a large role in censures listening for certain words that demonstrated the accused was truly remorseful for their actions similar to the distinction between female and male spirituality the language women and men used in their confessions differed the feminized language expected from women included words such as shame wounded great sin nature pity evil poor and grief on the other hand men used more objective phrases such as rules breach offense desire forgiveness actions and brethren 106 the difference in treatment for men and women was reflected even in the specific sins they were accused of committing as stated earlier women were rarely censured for economic disputes as they lacked influence in that regard thus if a commercial dispute involving a woman were to arise the congregation treated her differently than a man such was the case for a woman named chaplain in 1696 dorchester s sister chaplain borrowed money from john green to buy a shipment of wine when green died and his estate tried to collect the debt from chaplain she refused the congregation did not cite her for breaking a contract but censured her for lying 105 women would also at times face harsher punishments than men for the same sin boston s second church censured john farnum for making bad comments about another church and its pastor and they noted he was breaking the rule of truth however that same congregation recorded much harsher words about sarah stevens whom they admonished for many evill carriages and sundry filthy speeches not fit to be named and when they censured her they said she grew more vile and hard hearted the court also took up her case and sentenced her to jail and two whippings 107 demonology and witch hunts edit further information christian demonology like most christians in the early modern period puritans believed in the active existence of the devil and demons as evil forces that could possess and cause harm to men and women there was also widespread belief in witchcraft and witches persons in league with the devil unexplained phenomena such as the death of livestock human disease and hideous fits suffered by young and old may all be blamed on the agency of the devil or a witch 108 puritan pastors undertook exorcisms for demonic possession in some high profile cases exorcist john darrell was supported by arthur hildersham in the case of thomas darling 109 samuel harsnett a sceptic on witchcraft and possession attacked darrell however harsnett was in the minority and many clergy not only puritans believed in witchcraft and possession 110 in the 16th and 17th centuries thousands of people throughout europe were accused of being witches and executed in england and colonial america puritans engaged in witch hunts as well in the 1640s matthew hopkins the self proclaimed witchfinder general whose career flourished during puritan rule was responsible for accusing over two hundred people of witchcraft mainly in east anglia 111 between 1644 and 1647 hopkins and his colleague john stearne sent more accused people to the gallows than all the other witch hunters in england of the previous 160 years 112 in new england few people were accused and convicted of witchcraft before 1692 there were at most sixteen convictions 113 the salem witch trials of 1692 had a lasting impact on the historical reputation of new england puritans though this witch hunt occurred after puritans lost political control of the massachusetts colony puritans instigated the judicial proceedings against the accused and comprised the members of the court that convicted and sentenced the accused by the time governor william phips ended the trials fourteen women and five men had ...
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