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a in the medieval era it is considered the second most important work of samkhya after the karika 149 commentaries on this text were written by anirruddha sāṁkhyasūtravṛtti c 15th century ce vijñānabhikṣu sāṁkhyapravacanabhāṣya c 16th century ce mahādeva vṛttisāra c 17th century ce and nāgeśa laghusāṁkhyasūtravṛtti 150 in his introduction the commentator vijnana bhiksu stated that only a sixteenth part of the original samkhya sastra remained and that the rest had been lost to time 151 while the commentary itself is no doubt medieval the age of the underlying sutras is unknown and perhaps much older according to surendranath dasgupta scholar of indian philosophy charaka samhita an ancient indian medical treatise also contains thoughts from an early samkhya school 152 views on god edit part of a series on atheism concepts antitheism implicit and explicit atheism materialism naturalism negative and positive atheism history history of atheism atheism during the age of enlightenment new atheism society atheist feminism criticism of religion demographics of atheism discrimination against atheists secular ethics secularism separation of church and state state atheism arguments arguments for atheism atheist s wager creator of god evil god challenge fate of the unlearned free will god of the gaps hitchens s razor incompatible properties inconsistent revelation nonbelief occam s razor omnipotence paradox parody religion poor design problem of evil problem of hell russell s teapot theological noncognitivism people list of atheists julian baggini mikhail bakunin simone de beauvoir mario bunge albert camus richard dawkins daniel dennett denis diderot ludwig feuerbach emma goldman a c grayling sam harris stephen hawking christopher hitchens baron d holbach lawrence krauss paul kurtz j l schellenberg derek parfit michael lou martin ayn rand karl marx jean meslier friedrich nietzsche michel onfray pierre joseph proudhon william l rowe graham oppy bertrand russell peter singer victor j stenger books atheism the case against god breaking the spell de rerum natura the end of faith the essence of christianity god and the state the god delusion god is not great the system of nature related stances irreligion agnosticism freethought secular humanism atheism and religion criticism of atheism nontheistic religion secular spirituality outline category philosophy portal wikiproject v t e burley and gopal suggest distinguishing between theistic and non theistic streams of samkhya traditions as seśvara with lord and nirīśvara without lord respectively 139 153 burley suggests that the svetasvatara upanishad is a paradigmatic example of seśvara samkhya whereas the samkhyakarika is a paradigmatic example of nirīśvara samkhya 139 daniel sheridan suggests that a theistic form of samkhya older than the classical system is found in the upanishads this form is also present in the vaisnava puranas 154 the oldest commentary on the samkhyakarika the yuktidīpikā asserts the existence of god stating we do not completely reject the particular power of the lord since he assumes a majestic body and so forth our intended meaning is just that there is no being who is different from prakrti and purusa and who is the instigator of these two as you claim therefore your view is refuted the conjunction between prakrti and purusa is not instigated by another being 29 chandradhar sharma in 1960 affirmed that samkhya in the beginning was based on the theistic absolute of upanishads but later on under the influence of jaina and buddhist thought it rejected theistic monism and was content with spiritualistic pluralism and atheistic realism this also explains why some of the later samkhya commentators e g vijnanabhiksu in the sixteenth century tried to revive the earlier theism in samkhya 155 137 a key difference between the samkhya and yoga schools state scholars 156 157 is that the yoga school accepts a personal yet essentially inactive deity or personal god 158 however radhanath phukan in the introduction to his translation of the samkhya karika of isvarakrsna has argued that commentators who see the unmanifested as non conscious make the mistake of regarding samkhya as atheistic though samkhya is equally as theistic as yoga 159 a majority of modern academic scholars are of view that the concept of ishvara was incorporated into the nirishvara atheistic samkhya viewpoint only after it became associated with the yoga the pasupata and the bhagavata schools of philosophy citation needed others have traced the concept of the emergent isvara accepted by samkhya to as far back as the rig veda where it was called hiranyagarbha the golden germ golden egg 160 161 this theistic samkhya philosophy is described in the mahabharata the puranas and the bhagavad gita 162 although the samkhya school considers the vedas a reliable source of knowledge samkhya accepts the notion of higher selves or perfected beings but rejects the notion of god according to paul deussen and other scholars 163 156 although other scholars believe that samkhya is as much theistic as the yoga school 159 29 according to rajadhyaksha classical samkhya argues against the existence of god on metaphysical grounds samkhya theorists argue that an unchanging god cannot be the source of an ever changing world and that god was only a necessary metaphysical assumption demanded by circumstances 164 a medieval commentary of samkhyakarika such as sāṁkhyapravacana sūtra in verse no 1 92 directly states that existence of ishvara god is unproved hence there is no philosophical place for a creationist god in this system it is also argued by commentators of this text that the existence of ishvara cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist 165 however later in the text the commentator vijnana bhiksu clarified that the subject of dispute between the samkhyas and others was the existence of an eternal isvara samkhya did accept the concept of an emergent isvara previously absorbed into prakṛti 166 arguments against ishvara s existence edit according to sinha the following arguments were given by samkhya philosophers against the idea of an eternal self caused creator god 165 if the existence of karma is assumed the proposition of god as a moral governor of the universe is unnecessary for if god enforces the consequences of actions then he can do so without karma if however he is assumed to be within the law of karma then karma itself would be the giver of consequences and there would be no need of a god even if karma is denied god still cannot be the enforcer of consequences because the motives of an enforcer god would be either egoistic or altruistic now god s motives cannot be assumed to be altruistic because an altruistic god would not create a world so full of suffering if his motives are assumed to be egoistic then god must be thought to have desire as agency or authority cannot be established in the absence of desire however assuming that god has desire would contradict god s eternal freedom which necessitates no compulsion in actions moreover desire according to samkhya is an attribute of prakṛti and cannot be thought to grow in god the testimony of the vedas according to samkhya also confirms this notion despite arguments to the contrary if god is still assumed to contain unfulfilled desires this would cause him to suffer pain and other similar human experiences such a worldly god would be no better than samkhya s notion of higher self furthermore there is no proof of the existence of god he is not the object of perception there exists no general proposition that can prove him by inference and the testimony of the vedas speak of prakṛti as the origin of the world not god therefore samkhya maintained that the various cosmological ontological and teleological arguments could not prove god influence on other schools edit vaisheshika and nyaya edit the vaisheshika atomism nyaya epistemology may all have roots in the early samkhya school of thought but these schools likely developed in parallel with an evolving samkhya tradition as sibling intellectual movements 167 yoga edit yoga is closely related to samkhya in its philosophical foundations the yoga school derives its ontology and epistemology from samkhya and adds to it the concept of isvara 168 however scholarly opinion on the actual relationship between yoga and samkhya is divided while jakob wilhelm hauer and georg feuerstein believe that yoga was a tradition common to many indian schools and its association with samkhya was artificially foisted upon it by commentators such as vyasa johannes bronkhorst and eric frauwallner think that yoga never had a philosophical system separate from samkhya bronkhorst further adds that the first mention of yoga as a separate school of thought is no earlier than śankara s c 788 820 ce 169 brahmasūtrabhaśya 170 tantra edit the dualistic metaphysics of various tantric traditions illustrates the strong influence of samkhya on tantra shaiva siddhanta was identical to samkhya in its philosophical approach barring the addition of a transcendent theistic reality 171 knut a jacobsen professor of religious studies notes the influence of samkhya on srivaishnavism according to him this tantric system borrows the abstract dualism of samkhya and modifies it into a personified male female dualism of vishnu and sri lakshmi 172 dasgupta speculates that the tantric image of a wild kali standing on a slumbering shiva was inspired from the samkhyan conception of prakṛti as a dynamic agent and purusha as a passive witness however samkhya and tantra differed in their view on liberation while tantra sought to unite the male and female ontological realities samkhya held a withdrawal of consciousness from matter as the ultimate goal 173 according to bagchi the samkhya karika in karika 70 identifies sāmkhya as a tantra 174 and its philosophy was one of the main influences both on the rise of the tantras as a body of literature as well as tantra sadhana 175 advaita vedanta edit the advaita vedanta philosopher adi shankara called samkhya as the principal opponent pradhana malla of vedanta he criticized the samkhya view that the cause of the universe is the unintelligent prakṛti pradhan according to shankara the intelligent brahman only can be such a cause 155 242 244 although ancient samkhya philosophers claimed vedic authority for their views 176 shankara considered dualism in the samkhyakarika to be inconsistent with the vedas 177 see also edit advaita vedanta of adi shankara a non dualist strand within hinduism darshanas khyativada ratha kalpana subtle body notes edit 1 2 zimmer jainism does not derive from brahman aryan sources but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre aryan upper class of northeastern india being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as yoga sankhya and buddhism the other non vedic indian systems 92 with the publication of previously unknown editions of yuktidipika about mid 20th century larson 80 has suggested what he calls as a tempting hypothesis but uncertain that samkhya tradition may be the oldest of the indian technical philosophical schools nyaya vaisheshika 80 early speculations such as rg veda 1 164 10 90 and 10 129 see larson 2014 p 5 1 2 older authors have noted the references to samkhya in the upanishads surendranath dasgupta stated in 1922 that samkhya can be traced to upanishads such as katha upanishad shvetashvatara upanishad and maitrayaniya upanishad and that the extant samkhya is a system that unites the doctrine of permanence of the upanishads with the doctrine of momentariness of buddhism and the doctrine of relativism of jainism 83 arthur keith in 1925 said that samkhya owes its origin to the vedic upanisadic epic heritage is quite evident 84 and samkhya is most naturally derived out of the speculations in the vedas brahmanas and the upanishads 85 johnston in 1937 analyzed then available hindu and buddhist texts for the origins of samkhya and wrote t he origin lay in the analysis of the individual undertaken in the brahmanas and earliest upanishads at first with a view to assuring the efficacy of the sacrificial rites and later in order to discover the meaning of salvation in the religious sense and the methods of attaining it here in kaushitaki upanishad and chandogya upanishad the germs are to be found of two of the main ideas of classical samkhya 86 references edit knut a jacobsen theory and practice of yoga motilal banarsidass isbn 978 8120832329 pages 100 101 samkhya american heritage dictionary of the english language fifth edition 2011 quote samkhya is a system of hindu philosophy based on a dualism involving the ultimate principles of soul and matter samkhya webster s college dictionary 2010 random house isbn 978 0375407413 quote samkhya is a system of hindu philosophy stressing the reality and duality of spirit and matter 1 2 3 lusthaus 2018 1 2 3 sharma 1997 pp 155 7 1 2 chapple 2008 p 21 1 2 osto 2018 p 203 1 2 osto 2018 p 204 205 gerald james larson 2011 classical sāṃkhya an interpretation of its history and meaning motilal banarsidass isbn 978 8120805033 pages 154 206 1 2 3 osto 2018 p 204 1 2 haney 2002 p 42 1 2 3 4 osto 2018 p 205 1 2 larson 1998 p 11 1 2 samkhya encyclopedia britannica 5 may 2015 1998 07 20 retrieved 8 june 2023 1 2 gerald james larson 2011 classical sāṃkhya an interpretation of its history and meaning motilal banarsidass isbn 978 8120805033 pages 36 47 1 2 3 4 larson 1998 p 9 1 2 3 4 5 eliott deutsche 2000 in philosophy of religion indian philosophy volume 4 editor roy perrett routledge isbn 978 0815336112 pages 245 248 john a grimes a concise dictionary of indian philosophy sanskrit terms defined in english state university of new york press isbn 978 0791430675 page 238 john a grimes a concise dictionary of indian philosophy sanskrit terms defined in english state university of new york press isbn 978 0791430675 page 238 mikel burley 2012 classical samkhya and yoga an indian metaphysics of experience routledge isbn 978 0415648875 pages 43 46 david kalupahana 1995 ethics in early buddhism university of hawaii press isbn 978 0824817022 page 8 quote the rational argument is identified with the method of samkhya a rationalist school upholding the view that nothing comes out of nothing or that being cannot be non being 1 2 zimmer 1951 p 217 314 1 2 3 4 larson 2014 p 4 1 2 3 4 5 larson 2014 p 5 larson 2014 p 4 5 larson 2014 p 9 11 michaels 2004 p 264 sen gupta 1986 p 6 radhakrishnan moore 1957 p 89 1 2 3 andrew j nicholson 2013 unifying hinduism philosophy and identity in indian intellectual history columbia university press isbn 978 0231149877 chapter 4 page 77 1 2 roy perrett indian ethics classical traditions and contemporary challenges volume 1 editor p bilimoria et al ashgate isbn 978 0754633013 pages 149 158 larson 2014 p xi samkhya monier williams sanskrit english dictionary cologne digital sanskrit 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