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ed the huerta regime continued to follow villa after the split with carranza as well as zapatistas the election of delegates was to frame the creation of the new constitution as the result of popular participation carranza provided a draft revision for the delegates to consider once the convention was in session after disputes about delegates delegates reviewed carranza s draft constitution that document was a minor revision of the 1857 constitution and included none of the social economic and political demands for which revolutionary forces fought and died the convention was divided between conservatives mostly politicians who had supported madero and then carranza and progressives who were soldiers who had fought in revolutionary battles the progressives deemed radical jacobins by the conservatives sought to integrate deep political and social reforms into the political structure of the country 129 making principles for which many of the revolutionaries had fought into law the mexican constitution of 1917 was strongly nationalist giving the government the power to expropriate foreign ownership of resources and enabling land reform article 27 it also had a strong code protecting organized labor article 123 and extended state power over the roman catholic church in mexico in its role in education article 3 villistas and zapatistas were excluded from the constituent congress but their political challenge pushed the delegates to radicalize the constitution which in turn was far more radical than carranza himself 130 while he was elected constitutional president in 1917 he did not implement its most revolutionary elements particularly those dealing with land reform carranza came from the old porfirian landowning class and was repulsed by peasant demand for redistribution of land and their expectation that land seized would not revert to their previous owners although revolutionary generals were not part formal delegates to the convention álvaro obregón indirectly then directly sided with the progressives against carranza in historian frank tannenbaum s assessment the constitution was written by the soldiers of the revolution not by the lawyers who were there at the convention but were generally in opposition 131 the constitution was drafted and ratified quickly in february 1917 in december 1916 villa had captured the major northern city of torreón with obregón especially realizing that villa was a continuing threat to the constitutionalist regime zapata and his peasant followers in morelos also never put down their guns and remained a threat to the government in mexico city incorporating radical aspects of villa s program and the zapatistas plan of ayala the constitution became a way to outflank the two opposing revolutionary factions carranza was elected president under the new constitution and once formally in office largely ignored or actively undermined the more radical aspects of the constitution obregón returned to sonora and began building a power base that would launch his presidential campaign in 1919 which included the new labor organization headed by luis n morones the regional confederation of mexican workers crom carranza increasingly lost support of labor crushing strikes against his government carranza did not move forward on land reform fueling increasing opposition from peasants in an attempt to suppress the continuing armed opposition conflict in morelos carranza sent general pablo gonzález with troops going further carranza ordered the assassination of emiliano zapata in 1919 it was a huge blow but zapatista general genovevo de la o continued to lead the armed struggle there emiliano zapata and the revolution in morelos edit main article emiliano zapata emiliano zapata francisco i madero emiliano zapata in cuernavaca zapata rebelled against madero in 1911 because of madero s slowness in implementing land reform from the late porfiriato until his assassination by an agent of president carranza in 1919 emiliano zapata played an important role in the mexican revolution the only revolutionary of first rank from southern mexico 132 his home territory in morelos was of strategic importance just south of mexico city of the revolutionary factions it was the most homogeneous with most fighters being free peasants and only few peons on haciendas with no industry to speak of in morelos there were no industrial workers in the movement and no middle class participants a few intellectuals supported the zapatistas the zapatistas armed opposition movement just south of the capital needed to be heeded by those in power in mexico city unlike northern mexico close to the u s border and access to arms sales from there the zapatista territory in morelos was geographically isolated from access to arms the zapatistas did not appeal for support to international interests nor play a role in international politics the way pancho villa the other major populist leader did the movement s goal was for land reform in morelos and restoration of the rights of communities the zapatistas were divided into guerrilla fighting forces that joined together for major battles before returning to their home villages zapata was not a peasant himself but led peasants in his home state in regionally concentrated warfare to regain village lands and return to subsistence agriculture morelos was the only region where land reform was enacted during the years of fighting 133 zapata initially supported madero since his plan de san luis potosí had promised land reform but madero negotiated a settlement with the díaz regime that continued its power once elected in november 1911 madero did not move on land reform prompting zapata to rebel against him and draft the plan of ayala 1911 134 135 after madero s overthrow and murder zapata disavowed his previous admiration for pascual orozco and directed warfare against the huerta government as did northern states of mexico in the constitutionalist movement but zapata did not ally or coordinate with it with the defeat of huerta in july 1914 zapata loosely allied with pancho villa who had split from venustiano carranza and the constitutionalist army the loose zapata villa alliance lasted until obregón decisively defeated villa in a series of battles in 1915 including the battle of celaya zapata continued to oppose the constitutionalists but lost support in his own area and attempted to entice defectors back to his movement that was a fatal error he was ambushed and killed on 10 april 1919 by agents of now president venustiano carranza 136 photos were taken of his corpse demonstrating that he had indeed been killed although zapata was assassinated the agrarian reforms that peasants themselves enacted in morelos were impossible to reverse the central government came to terms with that state of affairs zapata had fought for land and for those who tilled it in morelos and succeeded his credentials as a steadfast revolutionary made him an enduring hero of the revolution his name and image were invoked in the 1994 uprising in chiapas with the zapatista army of national liberation the last successful coup 1920 edit 1920 cartoon published in the u s as carranza was ousted even as carranza s political authority was waning he attempted to impose mexico s ambassador to the u s ignacio bonillas as his successor under the plan of agua prieta a triumvirate of sonoran generals álvaro obregón plutarco elías calles and adolfo de la huerta with elements from the military and labor supporters in the crom rose in successful rebellion against carranza the last successful coup of the revolution 137 carranza fled mexico city by train toward veracruz but continued on horseback and died in an ambush perhaps an assassination but also possibly by suicide carranza s attempt to impose his choice was considered a betrayal of the revolution 138 obregón and the sonorans the architects of carranza s rise and fall shared his hard headed opportunism but they displayed a better grasp of the mechanisms of popular mobilization allied to social reform that would form the bases of a durable revolutionary regime after 1920 120 the interim government of adolfo de la huerta negotiated pancho villa s surrender in 1920 rewarding him with an hacienda where he lived in peace until he floated political interest in the 1924 election villa was assassinated in july 1923 139 álvaro obregón was elected president in october 1920 the first of a string of revolutionary generals calles rodríguez cárdenas and ávila camacho to hold the presidency until 1946 when miguel alemán the son of a revolutionary general was elected consolidation of the revolution 1920 1940 edit the period 1920 1940 is generally considered to be one of revolutionary consolidation with the leaders seeking to return mexico to the level of development it had reached in 1910 but under new parameters of state control authoritarian tendencies rather than liberal democratic principles characterized the period with generals of the revolution holding the presidency and designating their successors 140 revolutionary generals continued to revolt against the new political arrangements particularly at the juncture of an election general adolfo de la huerta rose in rebellion in 1923 contesting obregón s choice of calles as his successor generals arnulfo gómez and francisco serrano revolted in 1928 contesting obregón s bid for a second term as president and general josé gonzalo escobar revolted in 1929 against calles who remained a power behind the presidency with the assassination of obregón in 1928 all these revolts were unsuccessful in the late 1920s anticlerical provisions of the 1917 constitution were stringently enforced leading to a major grassroots uprising against the government the bloody cristero war that lasted from 1926 to 1929 although the period is characterized as a consolidation of the revolution who ruled mexico and the policies the government pursued were met with violence 141 sonoran generals in the presidency 1920 1928 edit see also sonora in the mexican revolution revolutionary general and president of mexico álvaro obregón 1920 1924 revolutionary general and president of mexico plutarco elías calles 1924 1928 there is no consensus when the revolution ended but the majority of scholars consider the 1920s and 1930s as being on the continuum of revolutionary change 142 143 8 the end date of revolutionary consolidation has also been set at 1946 with the last general serving as president and the political party morphing into the institutional revolutionary party 144 in 1920 sonoran revolutionary general álvaro obregón was elected president of mexico and inaugurated in december 1920 following the coup engineered by him and revolutionary generals plutarco elías calles and adolfo de la huerta the coup was supported by other revolutionary generals against the civilian carranza attempting to impose another civilian ignacio bonillas as his successor obregón did not have to deal with two major revolutionary leaders de la huerta managed to persuade revolutionary general pancho villa to lay down his arms against the regime in return for a large estate in durango in northern mexico carranza s agents had assassinated emiliano zapata in 1919 removing a consistent and effective opponent some counterrevolutionaries in chiapas laid down their arms the only pro carranza governor to resist the regime change was esteban cantú in baja california suppressed by northern revolutionary general abelardo rodríguez 145 later to become president of mexico although the 1917 constitution was not fully implemented and parts of the country were still controlled by local strongmen caciques obregón s presidency did begin consolidation of parts of the revolutionary agenda including expanded rights of labor and the peasantry obregón was a pragmatist and not an ideologue so that domestically he had to appeal to both the left and the right to ensure mexico would not fall back into civil war securing labor rights built on obregón s existing relationship with urban labor the constitutionists had made an alliance with labor during the revolution mobilizing the red battalions against zapata s and villa s force this alliance continued under obregón s and calles s terms as president obregón also focused on land reform he had governors in various states push forward the reforms promised in the 1917 constitution these were however quite limited former zapatistas still had strong influence in the post revolutionary government so most of the reforms began in morelos the birthplace of the zapatista movement 146 obregón s government was faced with the need for stabilizing mexico after a decade of civil war with the revolutionary armies having defeated the old federal army obregón now dealt with military leaders who were used to wielding power violently enticing them to leave the political arena in exchange for material rewards was one tactic de la huerta had already successfully used it with pancho villa not trusting villa to remain on the sidelines obregón had him assassinated in 1923 147 in 1923 de la huerta rebelled against obregón and his choice of calles as his successor as president leading to a split in the military the rebellion was suppressed and obregón began to professionalize the military reduced the number of troops by half and forced officers to retire obregón 1920 24 followed by calles 1924 28 viewed bringing the armed forces under state control as essential to stabilizing mexico 148 downsizing the military meant that state funds were freed up for other priorities especially education 149 obregón s minister of education josé vasconcelos initiated innovative broad educational and cultural programs obregón sought diplomatic recognition by the u s in order to be considered legitimately holding power he believed that once u s recognition was secured other nations would follow suit the u s and foreign interests were alarmed at provision in the new constitution powering the government to expropriate private property and foreigners also had claims against mexico for damage to their property during the decade of turmoil american and british entrepreneurs had developed the petroleum industry in mexico and had claims to oil still in the ground foreigners held extensive agricultural land that was now at risk to be distributed to landless mexicans obregón and the u s entered in talks to sort out many issues the bucareli treaty concluded in 1923 with the u s recognizing obregón s government 150 in mexico the agreement was controversial with it being perceived as making major concessions to the u s and undermining revolutionary goals but obregón pushed it through the legislature and gained american recognition when his fellow sonoran general de la huerta rebelled later in 1923 the u s supplied obregón with arms to put down the challenge 151 conflict zones of the cristero war map of mexico showing regions in which cristero outbreaks occu...
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