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c shim a device used to adjust the homogeneity of a magnetic field 35 these were sheets of iron about 3 feet 1 m in width that were bolted to the top and bottom of the vacuum tank the effect of the shims was to slightly increase the magnetic field in such a way as to help focus the ion beam work would continue on the shims through 1943 33 34 the main calutron patents were methods of and apparatus for separating materials lawrence 36 magnetic shims oppenheimer and frankel 35 and calutron system lawrence 37 burhop and bohm later studied the characteristics of electric discharges in magnetic fields today known as bohm diffusion their papers on the properties of plasmas under magnetic containment would find usage in the post war world in research into controlled nuclear fusion 38 other technical problems were more mundane but no less important although the beams had low intensity they could over many hours of operation still melt the collectors a water cooling system was therefore added to the collectors and the tank liner procedures were developed for cleaning the gunk that condensed inside the vacuum tank a particular problem was blockage of the slits by crud which caused the ion beams to lose focus or stop entirely 39 the chemists had to find a way of producing quantities of uranium tetrachloride ucl 4 from uranium oxide 40 nier had used uranium bromide 41 initially they produced it by using hydrogen to reduce uranium trioxide uo 3 to uranium dioxide uo 2 which was then reacted with carbon tetrachloride ccl 4 to produce uranium tetrachloride charles a kraus proposed a better method for large scale production that involved reacting the uranium oxide with carbon tetrachloride at high temperature and pressure this produced uranium pentachloride ucl 5 and phosgene cocl 2 while nowhere near as volatile as the uranium hexafluoride used by the gaseous diffusion process uranium tetrachloride is hygroscopic so work with it had to be undertaken in gloveboxes that were kept dry with phosphorus pentoxide p 4 o 10 the presence of phosgene a lethal gas responsible for 85 000 deaths as a chemical weapon during world war i required that the chemists wear gas masks when handling it 40 of the 19 6 million spent on research and development of the electromagnetic process 18 million 92 percent was spent at the radiation laboratory in berkeley and further work conducted at brown university johns hopkins university and purdue university and by the tennessee eastman corporation 42 during 1943 the emphasis shifted from research to development engineering and the training of workers to operate the production facilities at the clinton engineer works in oak ridge tennessee by the middle of 1944 there were nearly 1 200 people working at the radiation laboratory 43 design edit much of the great progress on the electromagnetic process can be attributed to lawrence s leadership style his audacity optimism and enthusiasm were contagious his staff put in long hours and university of california administrators sliced through red tape despite not knowing what the project was about government officials began to view the development of atomic bombs in time to affect the outcome of the war as a genuine possibility vannevar bush the director of the osrd which was overseeing the project visited berkeley in february 1942 and found the atmosphere there stimulating and refreshing 44 on 9 march 1942 he reported to the president franklin d roosevelt that it might be possible to produce enough material for a bomb by mid 1943 based on new estimates from robert oppenheimer that the critical mass of a sphere of pure uranium 235 was between 2 0 and 2 5 kilograms 45 46 control panels and operators for calutrons at the oak ridge y 12 plant the operators mostly women worked in shifts covering 24 hours a day the experiments with the 184 inch magnet led to the construction of a prototype calutron called the xa it contained a rectangular three coil magnet with a horizontal field in which the calutron tanks could stand side by side with four vacuum tanks each with a double source 47 at the 25 june 1942 meeting of the s 1 executive committee which had superseded the s 1 uranium committee on 19 june there was a proposal to build the electromagnetic plant at oak ridge where the other manhattan project uranium separation facilities would be located for reasons of economy and security lawrence lodged an objection due to his desire to have the electromagnetic separation plant located much nearer to berkeley 48 the shasta dam area in california remained under consideration for the electromagnetic plant until september 1942 by which time lawrence had dropped his objection 49 the 25 june meeting also designated stone webster as the primary contractor for the design and engineering 50 the army assumed responsibility for the manhattan project on 17 september 1942 with brigadier general leslie r groves jr as director 51 although the army did not formally take over the contracts with the university of california from the osrd until 1 may 1943 52 major thomas t crenshaw jr became california area engineer in august 1942 with captain harold a fidler who soon replaced him as his assistant crenshaw established his office in the donner laboratory at the university of california 53 54 in september 1942 the s 1 executive committee recommended that a five tank pilot plant be built along with a 200 tank section of a production plant 51 between october 1942 and november 1943 groves paid monthly visits to the radiation laboratory in berkeley 46 reports indicated that compared to the alternatives of a gaseous diffusion plant or a plutonium producing nuclear reactor an electromagnetic plant would take longer and require more scarce materials to build and need more manpower and more electricity to operate the cost of a kilogram of fissile material would therefore be much greater on the other hand while the alternative processes still faced considerable technical obstacles the electromagnetic process was proven to work and could be built in stages that would immediately start producing fissile material 55 groves cancelled the pilot plant on 14 november in favor of proceeding immediately with the production plant 56 the radiation laboratory forwarded the preliminary designs for a production plant to stone webster before the end of the year but one important issue remained unsettled oppenheimer contended that weapons grade uranium would have to be 90 pure uranium 235 edward lofgren and martin kamen thought that this could not be achieved without a second stage of enrichment 39 the two stages became known as alpha and beta 57 in march 1943 groves approved the construction of five alpha and two beta racetracks in september he authorized four more alpha racetracks which became known as alpha ii along with two more beta racetracks to process their product 39 58 construction edit the y 12 electromagnetic plant construction of the electromagnetic plant at oak ridge codenamed y 12 commenced 18 february 1943 the facility would eventually comprise nine major process buildings and 200 other structures covering almost 80 acres 32 ha of floor space the 825 acre 334 ha site in bear creek valley southwest of the oak ridge township was selected in the hope that the surrounding ridge lines might contain a major explosion or nuclear accident 59 problems with the substratum required the excavation crews to perform more blasting and excavation to provide adequate foundations for the heavy machinery in the facilities 60 supplies and materials of all kinds poured in 2 157 carloads of electrical equipment 1 219 of heavy equipment 5 389 of lumber 1 407 of pipe and fittings 1 188 of steel 257 of valves and 11 of welding electrodes the racetracks required 85 000 vacuum tubes where possible off the shelf components were used but all too many components of the calutrons were unique 61 two purchasing departments were established one in boston near stone webster for facility equipment and the other at oak ridge for construction supplies 62 the chief engineer of the manhattan district colonel james c marshall and his deputy lieutenant colonel kenneth d nichols discovered that the electromagnetic isotope separation process would require 5 000 short tons 4 500 tonnes of copper which was in desperately short supply however they realized that silver could be substituted in an 11 10 ratio of copper silver on 3 august 1942 nichols met with the under secretary of the treasury daniel w bell and asked for the transfer of silver bullion from the west point bullion depository nichols later recalled the conversation he explained the procedure for transferring the silver and asked how much do you need i replied six thousand tons how many troy ounces is that he asked in fact i did not know how to convert tons to troy ounces and neither did he a little impatient i responded i don t know how many troy ounces we need but i know i need six thousand tons that is a definite quantity what difference does it make how we express the quantity he replied rather indignantly young man you may think of silver in tons but the treasury will always think of silver in troy ounces 63 eventually 14 700 short tons 13 300 tonnes 430 000 000 troy ounces of silver were used 64 then worth over 600 million 65 nichols had to provide a monthly accounting to the treasury the 1 000 troy ounce 31 kg silver bars were taken under guard to the defense plant corporation in carteret new jersey where they were cast into cylindrical billets and then to phelps dodge in bayway new jersey where they were extruded into strips 0 625 inches 15 9 mm thick 3 inches 7 6 cm wide and 40 feet 12 m long some 258 carloads were shipped under guard by rail to allis chalmers in milwaukee wisconsin where they were wound onto magnetic coils and sealed into welded casings 66 finally they moved by unguarded flatcars to the clinton engineer works there special procedures were instituted for handling the silver when they had to drill holes in it they did so over paper so that the filings could be collected after the war all the machinery was dismantled and cleaned and the floorboards beneath the machinery were ripped up and burned to recover minute amounts of silver in the end 155 645 39 troy ounces 4 841 113 kg or less than 0 036 was lost 65 67 68 in may 1970 the last 67 short tons 61 tonnes 2 000 000 troy ounces of silver was replaced with copper and returned to the treasury 69 the xax racetrack with two tanks and three coils was ready to train workers in august 1943 bugs were discovered but were not aggressively followed up the first alpha process building 9201 1 was completed on 1 november 1943 when the first racetrack was started up for testing on schedule in november the 14 ton vacuum tanks crept out of alignment by as much as 3 inches 8 cm because of the power of the magnets and had to be fastened more securely a more serious problem arose when the magnetic coils started shorting out in december groves ordered a magnet broken open and handfuls of rust were found inside moisture was also a problem in its own right as was the winding of the wire which was too tight groves ordered the racetracks to be torn down and the magnets sent back to the factory to be cleaned and rewound 62 70 rigid standards for preparation and cleanliness were instituted to prevent a recurrence of these problems 71 training for the beta tracks shifted from the xax to the xbx training and development racetrack in november 1943 72 a second alpha i racetrack became operational in january 1944 the first beta racetrack and the third and first alpha racetracks now repaired became operational in march 1944 and the fourth alpha racetrack in april 1944 a third building 9201 3 contained a fifth racetrack that incorporated some modifications and was known as alpha i 1 2 this became operational on 3 june 1944 work on the alpha and beta chemistry buildings 9202 and 9203 commenced in february 1943 and was completed in september work on the beta process building 9204 1 began in may 1943 and was ready for operation on 13 march 1944 but was not completed until september 1944 73 74 75 groves authorized alpha ii in september 1943 this consisted of two new alpha process buildings 9201 4 and 9201 5 another beta 9204 2 an extension to the alpha chemistry building and a new beta chemistry building 9206 when 9206 opened the old beta chemistry building 9203 was converted into a laboratory work started on the new alpha ii process buildings on 2 november 1943 the first racetrack was completed in july 1944 and all four were operational by 1 october 1944 the alpha ii racetracks were configured in a linear layout rather than an oval although they were still called racetracks 73 74 75 in all there were 864 alpha calutrons arranged in nine racetracks of 96 there were only 36 calutrons in each beta racetrack for a total of 288 calutrons although only 216 of them were ever operated 57 work on the new beta process building commenced on 20 october 1943 equipment installation began on 1 april 1944 and it was ready for use on 10 september 1944 a third beta process building 9204 3 was authorized in may 1944 to process the output of the k 25 gaseous diffusion plant it was completed on 15 may 1945 a fourth beta process building 9204 4 was authorized on 2 april 1945 and was completed by 1 december 1945 a new group of alpha chemistry buildings known as the 9207 group was commenced in june 1944 but work was halted in june 1945 before they were completed along with these main buildings there were offices workshops warehouses and other structures there were two steam plants for heating and a power plant for electricity 75 73 operations edit beta racetrack these second stage racetracks were smaller than the alpha racetracks and contained fewer process bins note that the oval shape of the alpha i racetrack has been abandoned for ease of servicing the alpha racetracks were a 24 fold magnification of the xa calutron that could hold 96 calutron alpha tanks the calutrons were upright and arrayed facing each other in pairs of inner and outer machines to minimize magnetic losses and to economize on steel consumption the assembly was curved into an oval shape that formed a closed magnetic loop 122 feet 37 m long 77 feet 23 m wide and 15 feet 4 6 m high in the shape of a racetrack hence the name 39 the two alpha i buildings 9201 1 and 9201 2 each contained two racetracks with only one in the alpha i 1 2 9201 3 the beta racetracks were smaller linear in shape and optimized for recovery rather than production with only 36 instead of 96 process bins the four alpha ii racetracks were also linear in configuration they incorporated many improvements the most important being that they had four sources instead of just two 73 75 they also had improved magnets and vacuum systems 76 tennessee eastman was hired to manage y 12 on the usual cost plus fixed fee basis with a fee of 22 500 per mo...
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