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whether india 7 8 9 10 11 israel 12 6 or north korea 13 6 possess multi stage weapons pakistan is not considered to have developed them 10 14 after the 1991 collapse of the soviet union ukraine belarus and kazakhstan became the first and only countries to relinquish their thermonuclear weapons although these had never left the operational control of russian forces following the 1996 comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty most countries with thermonuclear weapons maintain their stockpiles and expertise using computer simulations hydrodynamic testing warhead surveillance and inertial confinement fusion experiments thermonuclear weapons are the only artificial source of explosions above one megaton tnt the tsar bomba was the most powerful bomb ever detonated at 50 megatons of tnt 210 pj 15 despite the uranium tamper being replaced with lead to reduce radioactive fallout 16 as they are the most efficient design for yields above 50 kilotons of tnt 210 tj and with decreased relevance of tactical nuclear weapons virtually all nuclear weapons deployed by the five recognized nuclear weapons states today are thermonuclear 17 their development dominated the cold war s nuclear arms race their destructiveness and ability to miniaturize high yields such as in mirv warheads defines nuclear deterrence and mutual assured destruction extensions of thermonuclear weapon design include clean bombs with marginal fallout and neutron bombs with enhanced penetrating radiation nonetheless most thermonuclear weapons designed including all current us and uk nuclear warheads derive most of their energy from fast fission causing high fallout 18 nuclear weapons background nuclear explosion history warfare design testing delivery yield effects humanitarian workers ethics arsenals target selection arms race blackmail deterrence espionage no first use proliferation disarmament sharing strategy terrorism umbrella opposition winter pax atomica nuclear triad nuclear armed states npt recognized united states russia united kingdom france china others india israel undeclared pakistan north korea former south africa belarus kazakhstan ukraine v t e terminology edit the adjectives thermonuclear fusion and hydrogen are used mainly to describe multi stage nuclear weapons which allow large fusion yields these operate on the radiation implosion principle and are synonymous with the teller ulam design independently developed by at least five countries thermonuclear refers to thermonuclear fusion where nuclei are fused via their high collision speeds at high temperatures unlike fission weapons whose detonations are mediated via neutron transport thermonuclear yield is more directly dependent on the temperatures and pressures achieved during compression of the secondary these are in contrast to boosted fission devices which employ thermonuclear fusion but detonate a single stage design theoretically limited to around one megaton 19 despite their name the simplest and most common thermonuclear weapons derive most of their yield 80 for us weapons from fast fission of a natural or depleted uranium tamper clean thermonuclear weapons 10 fission have also been tested and possibly deployed 18 basic principle edit main article nuclear weapon design edward teller in 1958 primary and secondary stages edit the basic principle of the teller ulam configuration is the idea that different parts of a thermonuclear weapon can be chained together in stages with the detonation of each stage providing the energy to ignite the next stage at a minimum this implies a primary section that consists of an implosion type fission bomb a trigger and a secondary section that consists of fusion fuel the energy released by the primary compresses the secondary through the process of radiation implosion at which point it is heated and undergoes nuclear fusion this process could be continued with energy from the secondary igniting a third fusion stage the soviet tsar bomba and us b41 nuclear bombs are believed to have used this design theoretically by continuing this process thermonuclear weapons with arbitrarily high yield could be constructed fission weapons are limited in yield because only so much fission fuel can be amassed in one place before the danger of its accidentally becoming supercritical becomes too great the british orange herald was the largest single stage fission test ever at 700 kilotons citation needed one possible version of the teller ulam configuration surrounding the other components is a hohlraum or radiation case a container that traps the first stage or primary s energy inside temporarily the outside of this radiation case which is also normally the outside casing of the bomb is the only direct visual evidence publicly available of any thermonuclear bomb component s configuration numerous photographs of various thermonuclear bomb exteriors have been declassified 20 the primary is a standard implosion method fission bomb though likely with a core boosted by small amounts of fusion fuel usually 1 1 deuterium tritium gas for extra efficiency the fusion fuel releases excess neutrons when heated and compressed inducing additional fission when fired the 239 pu or 235 u core would be compressed to a smaller sphere by special layers of conventional high explosives arranged around it in an explosive lens pattern initiating the nuclear chain reaction that powers the conventional atomic bomb the secondary is usually shown as a column of fusion fuel and other components wrapped in many layers around the column is first a pusher tamper a heavy layer of uranium 238 238 u or lead that helps compress the fusion fuel and in the case of uranium may eventually undergo fission itself inside this is the fusion fuel usually a form of lithium deuteride which is used because it is easier to weaponize than liquefied tritium deuterium gas this dry fuel when bombarded by neutrons produces tritium a heavy isotope of hydrogen that can undergo nuclear fusion along with the deuterium present in the mixture inside the layer of fuel is the spark plug a hollow column of fissile material 239 pu or 235 u often boosted by deuterium gas the spark plug when compressed can undergo nuclear fission because of the shape it is not a critical mass without compression the tertiary if one is present would be set below the secondary and probably be made of the same materials 21 22 interstage edit separating the secondary from the primary is the interstage the fissioning primary produces four types of energy 1 expanding hot gases from high explosive charges that implode the primary 2 superheated plasma that was originally the bomb s fissile material and its tamper 3 the electromagnetic radiation and 4 the neutrons from the primary s nuclear detonation the interstage is responsible for accurately modulating the transfer of energy from the primary to the secondary it must direct the hot gases plasma electromagnetic radiation and neutrons toward the right place at the right time less than optimal interstage designs have resulted in the secondary failing to work entirely on multiple shots known as a fissile fizzle the castle koon shot of operation castle is a good example a small flaw allowed the neutron flux from the primary to prematurely begin heating the secondary weakening the compression enough to prevent any fusion a classified paper by teller and ulam on 9 march 1951 on heterocatalytic detonations i hydrodynamic lenses and radiation mirrors in which they proposed their revolutionary staged implosion idea this declassified version is extensively redacted there is very little detailed information in the open literature about the mechanism of the interstage one of the best sources is a simplified diagram of a british thermonuclear weapon similar to the american w80 warhead it was released by greenpeace in a report titled dual use nuclear technology 23 the major components and their arrangement are in the diagram though details are almost absent what scattered details it does include likely have intentional omissions or inaccuracies they are labeled end cap and neutron focus lens and reflector wrap the former channels neutrons to the 235 u 239 pu spark plug while the latter refers to an x ray reflector typically a cylinder made of an x ray opaque material such as uranium with the primary and secondary at either end it does not reflect like a mirror instead it gets heated to a high temperature by the x ray flux from the primary then it emits more evenly spread x rays that travel to the secondary causing what is known as radiation implosion in ivy mike gold was used as a coating over the uranium to enhance the blackbody effect 24 next comes the reflector neutron gun carriage the reflector seals the gap between the neutron focus lens in the center and the outer casing near the primary it separates the primary from the secondary and performs the same function as the previous reflector there are about six neutron guns seen here from sandia national laboratories 25 each protruding through the outer edge of the reflector with one end in each section all are clamped to the carriage and arranged more or less evenly around the casing s circumference the neutron guns are tilted so the neutron emitting end of each gun end is pointed towards the central axis of the bomb neutrons from each neutron gun pass through and are focused by the neutron focus lens towards the center of primary in order to boost the initial fissioning of the plutonium a polystyrene polarizer plasma source is also shown see below the first us government document to mention the interstage was only recently released to the public promoting the 2004 initiation of the reliable replacement warhead rrw program a graphic includes blurbs describing the potential advantage of a rrw on a part by part level with the interstage blurb saying a new design would replace toxic brittle material and expensive special material that require unique facilities 26 the toxic brittle material is widely assumed to be beryllium which fits that description and would also moderate the neutron flux from the primary some material to absorb and re radiate the x rays in a particular manner may also be used 27 candidates for the special material are polystyrene and a substance called fogbank an unclassified codename fogbank s composition is classified though aerogel has been suggested as a possibility it was first used in thermonuclear weapons with the w76 thermonuclear warhead and produced at a plant in the y 12 complex at oak ridge tennessee for use in the w76 production of fogbank lapsed after the w76 production run ended the w76 life extension program required more fogbank to be made this was complicated by the fact that the original fogbank s properties were not fully documented so a massive effort was mounted to re invent the process an impurity crucial to the properties of the old fogbank was omitted during the new process only close analysis of new and old batches revealed the nature of that impurity the manufacturing process used acetonitrile as a solvent which led to at least three evacuations of the fogbank plant in 2006 widely used in the petroleum and pharmaceutical industries acetonitrile is flammable and toxic y 12 is the sole producer of fogbank 28 summary edit a simplified summary of the above explanation is a relatively small fission bomb known as the primary explodes energy released in the primary is transferred to the secondary or fusion stage this energy compresses the fusion fuel and sparkplug the compressed sparkplug becomes supercritical and undergoes a fission chain reaction further heating the compressed fusion fuel to a high enough temperature to induce fusion energy released by the fusion events continues heating the fuel keeping the reaction going the fusion fuel of the secondary stage may be surrounded by a layer of additional fuel that undergoes fission when hit by the neutrons from the reactions within these fission events account for about half of the total energy released in typical designs compression of the secondary edit how exactly the energy is transported from the primary to the secondary has been the subject of some disagreement in the open press but is thought to be transmitted through the x rays and gamma rays that are emitted from the fissioning primary this energy is then used to compress the secondary the crucial detail of how the x rays create the pressure is the main remaining disputed point in the unclassified press there are three proposed theories radiation pressure exerted by the x rays this was the first idea put forth by howard morland in an article in the progressive plasma pressure exerted by the x ray ionized channel filler a polystyrene or plastic foam or fogbank this was a second idea put forward by chuck hansen and later by howard morland ablation pressure exerted by the tamper pusher this is the concept best supported by physical analysis radiation pressure edit the radiation pressure exerted by the large quantity of x ray photons inside the closed casing might be enough to compress the secondary electromagnetic radiation such as x rays or light carries momentum and exerts a force on any surface it strikes the pressure of radiation at the intensities seen in everyday life such as sunlight striking a surface is usually imperceptible but at the extreme intensities found in a thermonuclear bomb the pressure is enormous for two thermonuclear bombs for which the general size and primary characteristics are well understood the ivy mike test bomb and the modern w 80 cruise missile warhead variant of the w 61 design the radiation pressure was calculated to be 73 10 6 bar 7 3 tpa for the ivy mike design and 1 400 10 6 bar 140 tpa for the w 80 29 foam plasma pressure edit this section needs more citations please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources unsourced material may be challenged and removed august 2026 learn how and when to remove this message foam plasma pressure is the concept that chuck hansen introduced and published independently during the course of the progressive case based on research that located declassified documents listing special foams as liner components within the radiation case of thermonuclear weapons 30 31 the sequence of firing the weapon with the foam would be as follows the high explosives surrounding the core of the primary fire compressing the fissile material into a supercritical state and beginning the fission chain reaction 32 the fissioning primary emits thermal x rays which reflect along the inside of the casing irradiating the polystyrene foam 32 the irradiated foam becomes a hot plasma pushing against the tamper of the secondary compressing it tightly and beginning the fission chain reaction in the spark plug 32 pushed from both sides from the primary and the spark plug the lithium deuteride fuel is highly compressed and heated to thermonuclear temperatures also by being bom...
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