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which lived in the prairies 70 to 80 miles west of the cheyenne villages 13 according to tribal history during the 17th century the cheyenne were driven by the assiniboine hóheeheo o from the great lakes region to present day minnesota and north dakota where they established villages the most prominent of the ancient cheyenne villages is biesterfeldt village in eastern north dakota along the sheyenne river they first reached the missouri river in 1676 14 a more recent analysis of early records posits that at least some of the cheyenne remained in the mille lac region of minnesota until about 1765 when the ojibwe defeated the dakota with firearms pushing the cheyenne in turn to the minnesota river where they were reported in 1766 15 on the missouri river the cheyenne came into contact with the neighboring mandan hidatsa tsé heše émâheónese people who have soil houses and arikara people ónoneo o adopting many of their cultural characteristics they were first of the later plains tribes to move into the black hills and powder river country about 1730 they introduced the horse to lakota bands ho óhomo eo o conflict with migrating lakota and ojibwe people forced the cheyenne further west and they in turn pushed the kiowa to the south 16 by 1776 the lakota had overwhelmed the cheyenne and taken over much of their territory near the black hills in 1804 lewis and clark visited a surviving cheyenne village in what is now north dakota such european explorers learned many different names for the cheyenne and did not realize how the different sections were forming a unified tribe 16 the modern cheyenne people descend from two closely related tribes the tsétsėhéstȧhese tsitsistas cheyenne proper often regarded as the main cheyenne people and só taeo o só taétaneo o are more commonly known as the suhtai or sutaio the latter merged with the tsétshéstȧhese in the mid 19th century their oral history relays that both tribal peoples are characterized and represented by two cultural heroes or prophets who received divine articles from their god ma heo o whom the só taeo o called he emo cheyenne woman and child the tsétsėhéstȧhese tsitsistas prophet motsé eóeve sweet medicine standing sweet root standing commonly called sweet medicine received the maahótse sacred arrows bundle at nóávóse medicine sacred hill name for bear butte northwest of rapid city south dakota 17 which they carried when they waged tribal level war 16 18 19 and were kept in the maahéome arrow lodge or arrow tepee he organized the structure of cheyenne society their military or war societies led by prominent warriors their system of legal justice and the council of forty four peace chiefs the latter was formed from four véhoo o chiefs or leaders of the ten principal manaho bands and an additional four old man meetings to deliberate at regular tribal gatherings centered around the sun dance 4 sweet medicine is the cheyenne prophet who predicted the coming of the horse the cow the white man and other new things to the cheyenne he was named for motsé eonȯtse sweetgrass one of the sacred plant medicines used by many plains peoples in ceremonies the maahótse sacred arrows are symbols of male power the ésevone hóhkėha e sacred buffalo hat is the symbol of female power the sacred buffalo hat and the sacred arrows together form the two great covenants of the cheyenne nation through these two bundles ma heo o assures continual life and blessings for the people citation needed the só taeo o prophet tomȯsévėséhe erect horns received the ésevone aka is siwun sacred buffalo hat bundle at tȯhóonévose stone hammer mountain near the great lakes in the present state of minnesota the ésevone hóhkėha e sacred buffalo hat is kept in the vonȧhéome old term or hóhkėha éome new term sacred hat lodge sacred hat tepee erect horns gave them the accompanying ceremonies and the sun dance his vision convinced the tribe to abandon their earlier sedentary agricultural traditions to adopt nomadic plains horse culture they replaced their earth lodges with portable tipis and switched their diet from fish and agricultural produce to mainly bison and wild fruits and vegetables their lands ranged from the upper missouri river into what is now wyoming montana colorado and south dakota citation needed the ésevone hóhkėha e sacred buffalo hat is kept among the northern cheyenne and northern só taeo o the tséá enōvȧhtse sacred buffalo hat keeper or keeper of the sacred buffalo hat must belong to the só taeo o northern or southern alike in the 1870s tribal leaders became disenchanted with the keeper of the bundle demanded the keeper broken dish give up the bundle he agreed but his wife did not and desecrated the sacred hat and its contents a ceremonial pipe and a buffalo horn were lost in 1908 a cheyenne named three fingers gave the horn back to the hat the pipe came into possession of a cheyenne named burnt all over who gave it to hattie goit of poteau oklahoma who in 1911 gave the pipe to the oklahoma historical society in 1997 the oklahoma historal society negotiated with the northern cheyenne to return the pipe to the tribal keeper of the sacred medicine hat bundle james black wolf 20 expansion on the plains edit chief wolf on the hill cheyenne portrait by george catlin 1832 in fort pierre south dakota after being pushed south and westward by the lakota the cheyenne began to establish new territory around 1811 the cheyenne formally allied with the arapaho people hetanevo eo o which would remain strong throughout their history and into the present the alliance helped the cheyenne expand their territory that stretched from southern montana through most of wyoming the eastern half of colorado far western nebraska and far western kansas citation needed by 1820 american traders and explorers reported contact with cheyenne at present day denver colorado and on the arkansas river the cheyenne likely hunted and traded in denver much earlier they may have migrated to the south for winter the hairy rope band is reputed to have been the first band to move south capturing wild horses as far south as the cimarron river valley 21 in response to the construction of bent s fort by charles bent a non native trader and ally a large portion of the tribe moved further south and stayed around the area 22 the other part of the tribe continued to live along the headwaters of the north platte and yellowstone rivers the groups became the southern cheyenne or sówoníă southerners and the northern cheyenne or o mǐ sǐs eaters the two divisions maintained regular and close contact citation needed in the southern portion of their territory the cheyenne and arapaho warred with the allied comanche kiowa and plains apache numerous battles were fought including a notable fight along the washita river in 1836 with the kiowa which resulted in the death of 48 cheyenne warriors of the bowstring society 23 in summer 1838 many cheyenne and arapaho attacked a camp of kiowa and comanche along wolf creek in oklahoma resulting in heavy losses from both sides among the losses were white thunder keeper of the medicine arrows and owl woman s father flat war club cheyenne and sleeping wolf kiowa 24 conflict with the comanche kiowa and plains apache ended in 1840 when the tribes allied with each other the new alliance allowed the cheyenne to enter the llano estacado in the texas and oklahoma panhandles and northeastern new mexico to hunt bison and trade their expansion in the south and alliance with the kiowa led to their first raid into mexico in 1853 the raid ended in disaster with heavy resistance from mexican lancers resulting in all but three of the war party being killed citation needed to the north the cheyenne allied with the lakota which allowed them to expand their territory into part of their former lands around the black hills by heading into the rocky mountains they managed to escape the 1837 39 smallpox epidemics that swept across the plains from white settlements but were greatly affected by the 1849 cholera epidemic contact with euro americans was mostly light with most contact involving mountain men traders explorers treaty makers and painters citation needed enemies and warrior culture edit see also cheyenne military societies ledger drawing by hubble big horse showing a battle between cheyenne warriors and mexican lancers ledger drawing showing a battle between a cheyenne warrior right and an osage or pawnee warrior left ledger drawing of a mounted cheyenne warrior counting coup with lance on a dismounted crow warrior ledger drawing of a cheyenne warrior with pronghorn horned headdress symbol of the crazy dog society like many other plains indian nations the cheyenne were a horse and warrior people who developed as skilled and powerful mounted warriors a warrior in cheyenne society is not a fighter but also a protector provider and leader warriors gained rank in cheyenne society by performing and accumulating various acts of bravery in battle known as counting coups the title of war chief could be earned by any warrior who performs enough of the specific coups required to become a war chief citation needed specific warrior societies evolved each society had selected leaders who would invite those that they saw worthy enough to their society lodge for initiation into the society often societies would have minor rivalries however they might work together as a unit when warring with an enemy military societies played an important role in cheyenne government society leaders were often in charge of organizing hunts and raids as well as ensuring proper discipline and the enforcement of laws within the nation 25 each of the six distinct warrior societies of the cheyenne took turns leadering the nation 26 the four original military societies of the cheyenne were the swift fox society elk horn scrapper or crooked lance society shield society and the bowstring men society the fifth society is split between the crazy dog society and the famous dog soldiers the sixth society is the contrary warrior society most notable for riding backward into battle as a sign of bravery 7 all six societies and their various branches exist among the southern and northern cheyenne nations in present times citation needed warriors used a combination of weapons from war clubs tomahawks and bows and arrows and lances to firearms acquired through raiding and trade citation needed the enemies of the cheyenne included the apsáalooke óoetaneo o crow bird people shoshone sósone eo o blackfeet mo ȯhtávėhahtátaneo o same literal meaning interior salish and kuntenai kȧhkoestséataneo o flat headed people nez perce otaesétaneo o pierced nose people arikara gros ventre hestóetaneo o beggars for meat spongers or mȯhónooneo o lit scouting all over ones assiniboine and plains cree vóhkoohétaneo o rabbit people to the north and west of cheyenne territory by the help of the medicine arrows the mahuts the cheyenne tribe massacred a crow camp in 1820 27 to the east of cheyenne territory they fought with the lakota dakota pawnee ponca kaw iowa ho chunk and omaha onéhao o the pawnee captured the cheyenne s sacred arrows during an attack on a hunting camp around 1830 28 south of cheyenne territory they fought with the kiowa comanche ute plains apache osage wichita various apache tribes and navajo many of the enemies the cheyenne fought were only encountered occasionally such as on a long distance raid or hunt some of their enemies particularly the eastern plains tribe such as the pawnee and osage would act as indian scouts for the us army providing valuable tracking skills and information regarding cheyenne habits and fighting strategies to us soldiers some of their enemies such as the lakota would later in their history become their strong allies helping the cheyenne fight against the united states army during red cloud s war and the great sioux war of 1876 the comanche kiowa and plains apache became allies of the cheyenne towards the end of the indian wars on the southern plains fighting together during conflicts such as the red river war 29 relationship with the arapaho edit further information arapaho people the cheyenne and arapaho formed an alliance around 1811 that helped them expand their territories and strengthen their presence on the plains like the cheyenne the arapaho language is an algonquian language although the two languages are not mutually intelligible the arapaho remained strong allies with the cheyenne and helped them fight alongside the lakota and dakota during red cloud s war and the great sioux war of 1876 also known commonly as the black hills war on the southern plains the arapaho and cheyenne allied with the comanche kiowa and plains apache to fight invading settlers and us soldiers citation needed the arapaho were present with the cheyenne at the sand creek massacre when a peaceful encampment of mostly women children and the elderly were attacked and massacred by us soldiers both major divisions of the cheyenne the northern cheyenne and southern cheyenne were allies to the arapaho who like the cheyenne are split into northern and southern divisions the southern cheyenne and southern arapaho were assigned to the same reservation in oklahoma indian territory and remained together as the federally recognized cheyenne and arapaho tribes after the reservation was opened to american settlement and into modern times 30 the northern arapaho were to be assigned a reservation of their own or share one with the cheyenne however the us federal government failed to provide them with either and placed them on the already established wind river indian reservation in wyoming with their former enemies the shoshone citation needed treaty of 1825 edit in the summer of 1825 the tribe was visited on the upper missouri river by a us treaty commission consisting of general henry atkinson and indian agent benjamin o fallon accompanied by a military escort of 476 men general atkinson and his fellow commissioner left fort atkinson on may 16 1825 ascending the missouri they negotiated treaties of friendship and trade with tribes of the upper missouri including the arikara the cheyenne the crow the mandan the ponca and several bands of the lakota and dakota at that time the us had competition on the upper missouri from british traders who came south from canada citation needed the treaties acknowledged that the tribes lived within the united states vowed perpetual friendship between the us and the tribes and recognizing the right of the united states to regulate trade the tribes promised to deal only with licensed traders the tribes agreed to forswear private retaliation for injuries and to return stolen horses or other goods or compensate the owner the commission s efforts to contact the blackfoot and the assiniboine were unsuccessful during their return to fort atkinson at the council bluff in nebraska the commission had successful negotiations with the otoe the pawnee and the omaha...
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